DEMOGRAPHY Flashcards
BIRTHS
Birth rate is defined as the number of live births per 1000 per year. Statistics have shown there has been a long-term decline in the number of births. In 1900, England had a birth rate of 28.7, but by 2020 it had fallen to 11.4. However, there have been fluctuations in births, in the three baby booms of the 20th century, two of which came after the world wars. There are two factors that determine birth rate: the proportion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44) and how fertile they are. The total fertility rate is the average number of children women have during their fertile years. The UK’s FTR has fluctuated over the years but is overall declining. During the baby boom in the 60s it reached a high of 2.93 children per woman, however since 1973 it has remained consistently low. These changes reflect that more women are remaining childless than in the past and many are delaying childbirth (the average age is now 30.7). One of the many reasons to the long-term decline in birth rate is due to the changes in women’s position. Harper sees that education of women is the most important reason for the long-term decline in birth and fertility rates. Whilst it has led to change in the mindset amongst women, resulting in fewer children, women are more ambitious of their futures; there are other possibilities outside of the traditional housewife and mother. Many are otherwise choosing to delay childbearing or not have any at all. In 2019, it was found that almost 1/5 women who were 45 were childless.
Another contribution to the long-term decline in birth rate is the notion that children are economic liabilities. Until the late 19th century, children were economic assets to their parents as they could from an early age earn an income. However, they were gradually changed into economic liabilities. Laws banning child labour, the introduction of compulsory education and the raised school leaving age has meant children remain economically dependent on parents for longer. Furthermore, the changing norms about what children should expect from their parents in material form means the cost of bringing up children has risen. As a result of such financial pressures, parents now feel less able or willing (than in the past) to have large families.
DEATHS
Death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 per year. In 1900, the death rate stood at 19 whereas in 2019 it more than halved to 9.1. From 1870, the death rate began falling until the 1930s. Where it rose during the period of the great depression and World War 2, however since the 1950s it has declined. Tranter saw over 75% of the decline of death rate was due to the fall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases such as TB. Such deaths were most commonly found in the young. By the 1950s, ‘diseases of affluence’ such as heart disease and cancers came to replace infectious disease as the main cause of death. Such degenerative diseases affect middle aged and old people. A possible reason for the decline in deaths from infection can be attributed to the population gaining natural resistance. However, social factors partially had a greater impact. McKeown argues improved nutrition accounted for up to 50% of the reduced rates and was particularly important in relation reduced deaths from TB. However, McKeown fails to account why women, who receive a smaller share of the family’s food supply, lived longer than males. Adding on, he fails to explain why deaths from some infectious diseases like measles actually rose at the time of improving nutrition. A furthered factor to the decline in death rates comes from medical improvements. After the 1950s, improved medical knowledge, technique and organisation did reduce death rates. Such advances included the introduction of antibiotics, blood transfusions as well as the NHS in 1948.
AGEING POPULATION
The average age of the UK population is rising. In 1971, it was 34 years. By 2020 it stood at 40.4 years. By 2037, t is predicted to reach 42.8. There are fewer young people than old. The number of 65+ was the same number of under 15s in 2014.This ageing population is caused by three factors: increased life expectancy, people are living longer as they age; declining infant mortality and declining fertility; fewer young people are being born in proportion to the number of old people in the population. An effect of having an ageing population is found within the Public Services. Old people consume large portion of services: health and social care more than other age groups, this is particularly true of the Old Old (75+). However, this is an over-generalisation as many people remain in relatively good health as they age.
Furthermore, the number of pensioners living alone has increased and one-person pensioner households account for 15% of all households. Most of these are women as they generally live longer and are usually younger than their husbands. Amongst those over 75. There are twice as many women as men, this is referred to as the ‘feminisation of later life’.
Similarly, to the non-working young, the non-working old are economically dependent on those of working age.eg Taxations pay for pensions and healthcare. As the number of retired people rises, the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population increases. In 2022, there were 3.5 working aged people for every one pensioner. However, it would be wrong to assume ‘old’ equals to ‘economically dependent’, in 2020, the age people could withdraw their state pension rose from 65 to 66. A consequence of an ageing population is the rise of AGEISM – the negative stereotyping and treatment of people based on their age. Ageism towards older people is shown trough discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare.
MIGRATION
Migration is the movement of people from place to place, it can be internal or international. From 1900 until the second world war, the largest immigrant groups were the IRISH 9economic reasons), EASTERN EUROPEANS JEWISH PEOPLE who fled persecution and people of BRITISH descent in CANADA and USA. Contrastingly, during the 150s, the WINDRUSH GENERATION began to arrive in the UK. South Asian immigrants followed in the 1960s and 70s. A consequence to tis is a more ethnically diverse society. By 2021, ethnic minority groups accounted for 14.4 % of the population. However, more people left the UK than entered and most were white. Many Immigrations and Nationality Acts from 1962 to 1990 placed severe restrictions on non-white immigration. By the 1980s, non-white migrants accounted for 25% of all immigrants, while majority white countries of the EU became the source of settlers in the UK.
From the mid-16th century to the 80s, the UK was always a net exporter of people, as more emigrated to live elsewhere than settle in the UK. The main reasons for emigration have been found by ‘push factors’: economic recession, unemployment and ‘pull factors’ like higher wages and better opportunity. Such reasons for migration contrasts with those of other groups, whose motives have been driven by religious, political or racial persecution. The trending increase in immigration and emigration has had an impact on the U’s population size, which is increasingly growing. Net Migration to the UK was estimated to be 270,000 in 2019, down from a peak of 331,000 in 2015. However, Net Migration of EU citizens fell sharply after Brexit. A furthered trend affected is the age structure; immigration lowers the average age of the population (directly and indirectly). Directly, immigrants are generally younger. In 2019, 48% of the UK born population were 26-64 compared to 70% of migrants. Indirectly, being younger, immigrants are more fertile and may produce more babies.
The dependency ratio is also affected by the increase of immigration and emigration. As immigrants are more likely to be of working age this helps to lower the dependency ratio However, as they are younger, immigrants have more children which increases the ratio. Overtime, however, these children will join the workforce and lower the ratio once again. Furthermore, the longer a group is settled in a country, the closer their fertility rate aligns with the national average, thus reducing their overall impact on the dependency ratio.
GLOBALISATION and MIGRATION
Globalisation refers to the growing interconnectedness of society as a result of the increase of communication systems and global media, the creation of global markets and the fall of communism. Many view globalisation as a producer of rapid social change. One of which is increased international migration- movement of people across borders.There has been an acceleration on the rate of migration. According to the UN, in 2019 the number of international migrants was almost 272 million globally, which was 51 million more than in 2010. Adding on globalisation is increasing the diversity of the types of migrants. These include permanent settlers, spouses and forced migrants. Students are now a major group of migrants, in 2020, there were 140,000 Chinese-born students studying in the UK.
Historically most migrants were men.However,today, almost 50% of all global migrants are women. This is referred to as the ‘globalisation of the gender division of labour’. Where female migrants are fitted into patriarchal stereotypes women’s role as carers or providers of sexual services. Ehrenreich and Hoschild observe that care, domestic and sex work in western countries is increasingly done by women from poor countries. This is a result of western women joining the labour force and being less willing to perform domestic labour and the fact western men still remain unwilling to perform domestic labour. As such, the resulting gap is partly filled by women from poor countries. Shutes reports 40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants and are mostly women.Additionally a global transfer of women’s emotional labour takes place. Migrant nannie’s provide care and affection for their employers’ children, whilst having to abandon their own.
A politicisation of migration has followed since the increased global pattern. States have implemented policies that seek to control immigration, absorb migrants into society and to deal with increased ethnic and cultural diversity. Following 9/11, immigration policies have also become aligned with national security and anti-terrorism policies. Assimilation was the first state policy approach to immigration, which claimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, value and customs of the host culture. However, assimilationist policies face the problem of transnational
migrants with hybrid identities not being willing to abandon their culture and belong to one- nation state. Comparatively multiculturalism accepts migrants wish to retain separate cultural identities. However this may be limited to superficial aspects of cultural diversity such as what Eriksen calls ‘SHALLOW DIVERSITY’ in which Chicken Tikka Masala is accepted at Britain’s national dish and ‘DEEP DIVERSITY’ which regards arranged marriages as unacceptable to the state.
From the 1960s there was a move towards multiculturalism however since 9/11, many politicians have demanded migrants assimilate culturally. In France, veiling of the face was made illegal in 2010.
Castles sees assimilation policies to be counter productive as they are indicative that minority groups are culturally backwards, leading to minorities emphasising their cultural differences.This increases host’s suspicion that they are an enemy within and may promote anti- terrorism policies that target them. Breeding further marginalisation, defeating the aim of assimilation.
