Demography Flashcards
birth rate.
the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year
total fertility rate
the average number of children one woman will have between the ages of 15-44
death rate
the number of deaths per 1000 of the population per year
infant mortality rate
the number of children dying before their first birthday per 1000 live births per year
dependancy ratio
the number of children dying before their first birthday per 1000 live births per year
life expentancy
the average number of years that a person can expect to live.
migration
Moving to another country for a period of at least a year. (Internal migration: moving within your country of residence e.g. from London to Devon)
immigration
Entering another country for a period of at least a year, so that is becomes your usual place of residence.
emigration
Leaving your usual country of residence for a period of at least a year, to live in another country.
net migration
The difference between the number of immigrants coming in to a country and the number of emigrants leaving a country in a year.
natural change
Changes in the size of the population due to changes in the number of births and deaths, excluding migration.
globalisation
The way in which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected, causing time and space to seem compressed.
causes for decreasing birth rate
chnages in gender roles, womens position in society
increasingly effective contraception widely available plus access to abortion,
women less likely to get married,
women working in paid employment means that it is hard to combine a large number of children with working,
greater legal equality and rights for women, e.g. Equal Pay Act, 1970,
increased educational performance for women.
causes for decreasing birth and fertility rates
falling infant mortality
rising living standards,
improved hygiene and sanitation,
improvements in healthcare,
increased monitoring of child welfare and the developing role of the welfare state.
causes for decreasing birth and fertility rates
increased cost of child rearing
The length of schooling has been extended meaning that children are dependent on their parents for longer.
Views on parenting and childhood have changed: we are now more materialistic and child-centred.
People also want higher living standards and so having less children means that this is possible
causes for decreasing birth and furtility rates
changing attitudes
People no longer have to follow traditional norms and values and instead make their own decisions, for example about marriage and having children.
Alternatives to nuclear families are more socially acceptable so people may feel less social pressure to have a child/children.
Furthermore, as society has become more child-centred, some couples choose to have just one or two children so they don’t have to split their time and money as many ways.
consequences for declining birth rate
increase dependancy ratio
Falling numbers of children mean there will be less people of a working age in the next generation, which leads to greater numbers of dependant people
consequences of declined birth rate
less strain on public services
Such as hospitals and schools e.g. redundancies could be made as fewer children means less demand for midwives, primary school teachers. However, don’t forget the birth rate is now increasing again due to immigration.
consequences on declined birth rate
further changes made to gender roles
Falling fertility rates give women more time for their careers and perhaps leading to relationships between men and women becoming more equal?
ageing population- hirsch
Argues that by the middle of this century, each age group from the ages of 0-80 will be around the same size. Today there are fewer 60-80 year olds than people in younger age groups, but by 2041 this will no longer be true.
causes for decreasing death rate
1941 the beveridge report
Included the establishment of a National Health Service in 1948 with free medical treatment for all.
A national system of benefits was also introduced to provide ‘social security’ so that the population would be protected from the ‘cradle to the grave’
This led to greater government help for the elderly, sick and the young e.g. the NHS, welfare benefits such as sickness benefit, pensions, care homes.
causes for declining death rates
medical advantages
Antibiotics lead to a decrease in preventable deaths.
Vaccination programmes lead to a decrease in the infectious diseases such as TB, measles, whooping cough etc.
More recent illnesses such as diseases of affluence are being treated more effectively.
causes for decreasing death rates
improved health and hygiene
There was a rapid decline in absolute poverty (a lack of the basic necessities in life such as food and shelter) in the 20th century.
McKeown argues that improved nutrition and living standards are the main causes of the decrease in death rates, partly because better nutrition helps increase resistance to infectious diseases.
causes of decreasing death rates
improved maternity care
Since the NHS was introduced, maternity care has developed, and this has led to a decline in infant mortality rates and women dying during childbirth, which has helped lower the overall death rate.
consequences of longer life span
increased dependancy ratio
Pensions – around half of the welfare budget is spent on pensions already/ some sociologists are concerned about the ‘pension time bomb’ – higher taxes and smaller pensions
NHS - The elderly also use the NHS more regularly than other age groups: More than two-fifths of national health spending in the UK is devoted to people over 65.
consequences of increased life span
more family diversity
Increasing numbers of widowed people leads to more lone person households,
Some elderly people move in with their grown-up children and their family, resulting in more classic extended families.
Increased life expectancy combined with the low birth rate has created more beanpole families.
consequences of increased life expectancy
strain on families to care for the elderly
Due to growing numbers of elderly people, the government can no longer afford to provide care homes for them.
The Griffiths Report (1983) concluded that the government should increase the efficiency and amount of care in the community, including privatising of some parts of care in the community.
This has contributed to families being responsible for the care of elderly relatives, either by funding the care or by taking care of them.
consequence of increased lifespan
increasing role of grandparents (blaikie)
Blaikie argues that grandparents are increasingly involved with caring for their grandchildren as well; playing a more significant role in their lives as often both parents now work.
oppertunities the old improving in society
The elderly now get pensions so less likely to live in poverty
More leisure opportunities for elderly e.g. silver cinema, SAGA holidays
Can continue contributing to society by working longer or volunteering in local communities
Can help with childcare of grandchildren/more likely to get to meet grandchildren/ great grandchildren
postmodern society - individuals can choose a lifestyle and identity that does not depend on their age
Opportunity to have new relationships because of secularisation
arguments that the old arent improving in society
There are still significant differences in death rates and life expectancy between social classes (and regions of the UK)
For many, retirement is a period of economic difficulty, with a small pension to manage on
Economically difficult to afford care homes
Still seen as a burden
Elderly more likely face discrimination/abuse
Treated as free childcare
increased migration
increased national trade
Many companies are now transnational and often span continents, for example, companies such as BP, Coca Cola, Microsoft, Nike have offices/factories/retail all over the world.
This provides greater opportunities for people to move for work.
increased migration
new tech and global media
Email, Facetime, messaging, Zoom, social media etc.
Giving rise to LAT couples
Litwak – the modified extended family – families living away from each other can communicate more regularly
increased migration
political changes
the creation of international bodies (such as the European Union) has meant there are fewer visa restrictions, making it cheaper and easier for people to travel or even permanently move to another country.
For example, all members of EU countries have the right to live and work in any other EU country, with no need to obtain a visa.
increased migration
increased transport links
Improvements in air travel e.g. cheap airlines such as Ryanair and easyJet, make travel between countries easier and more affordable
This means that more countries and regions are linked to each other than ever before, and as a result, it is cheaper and easier for people to migrate to other parts of the world.
consequences of increased migration
increased population
Positive: provides more workers, decreases dependency ratio
Negative: issues with housing, strain on public services
Even the part of population increase that is due to natural change (e.g. more births than deaths) is linked to immigrants, as UK-born women have a far lower total fertility rate (1.7) than immigrant women (2.2). Overall, if it were not for the current levels of immigration, the British population would be shrinking.
consequences of increased migration
strain on public services
Education, the NHS, Social Housing. There are currently shortages of midwives and primary school places, for example.
However, as immigrants also have more babies on average than British people, this results in more young dependents who are also costly to the state (e.g. free education).
consequences of increased migration
lower avarage age population
Many immigrants are young adults, which lowers the average age of the British population, meaning the dependency ratio is not as high as it would otherwise be due to the ageing of the British population. This means there are more people of working age who can contribute financially to our society by paying tax on their earnings, and by filling gaps in the employment market.
