Definitions second midterm Flashcards
life events
- life events: a term used to describe occurences in a person´s life which may be viewed positively or negatively but which inherently require some adjustment on the part of the person (e.g. marriage, loss of job). Such events are implicated in the experience of stress
denial response:
taking a view that denies any negative implications of an event or stimulus. If subconscious, it is considered a defence mechanism).
a distancing response:
tanking a detached view, often a scientific view, of an event of stimulus in order to reduce emotional activation
appraisal
(interpretations of situations, events or behaviour that a person make)
- Stress reactivity
: the physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate or blood pressure, experienced during a potentially stressful encounter
- General adaption syndrome:
a sequence of physiological responses, prolonged stress, from the alarm stage throughout the resistance stage to exhaustion
Hans Selye´s stress model
- Hans Selye (1956) concluded that there were universal and non-specific responses to stress: i.e. the same physiological responses followed a range of stimuli, whether pleasant or unpleasant, and that the “fight-flight” response was only the first stage of responses to stress
- General adaption syndrome: a sequence of physiological responses, prolonged stress, from the alarm stage throughout the resistance stage to exhaustion (Selyes model)
• the response to stress is seen to initiate drive of living organisms to maintain internal balance, i.e. homeostasis, in a three-stage process:
1) alarm reaction awareness of a stressor is the initial response causing a downturn in bodily defences, and blood pressure and heart rate may initially decrease before rising to higher than normal levels cannot be maintained for long periods activation of anterior-pituary-adrenal cortex system
2) stage of resistance body tries to adapt to a stressor that has not subside in spite of resistance efforts made during the first stage arousal decreases but still higher than normal
3) stage of exhaustion would occur if the resistance stage lasts too long, resulting in depletion of body resources and energy
Kaposi´s Sarcoma
a maligant tumour of the connective tissue, often associated with AIDS. The tumours consists of bluish-red or purple lesions on the skin. They often appear first on the feet or ankles, thighs, arms, hands and face
autoimmune conditions
a group of diseases, including type 1 diabetes, Chron´s disease and rheumatoid arthritis, characterised by abnormal functioning of the immune system in which it produces antibodies against its own tissues - it treats “self” as “non-self”
pancreas
gland in which the islets of langerhans produce insulin - also produces secretes digestive enzymes.
rheumatoid arthritis
a chronic autoimmune diseases with inflammation of the joints and marked deformities
fistulas
formation of small passages that connect the intestine with other organs or the skin
inflammatory bowel disease
a group of inflammatory conditions of the large intestine and, in some cases, the small intestine. the main forms of IBD are Crohn´s disease and Ulcerative colitis
Crohn´s disease: autoimmune disease that can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract but most commonly occurs in the ileum (the area where the small and large intestine meet)
ulcerative colitis: a chronic inflammatory disease of the large intestine, characterised by recurrent episodes of abdominal pain, fever and severe diarrhoea
tachycardia
high heart rate - usually defined as greater than 100 beats per minute
irritable bowel syndrome
a disorder of the lower intestinal tract. Symptoms include pain combined with altered bowel habits resulting in diarrhoea, constipation or both. It has no obvious physiological abnormalities, so diagnosis is by the presence and pattern of symptoms
prognosis
the predicted outcome of a disease
aorta
the main trunk of the systemic arteries, carrying blood from the left side of the heart to the arteries of all limbs and organs except the lungs
defibrillator
a machine that uses an electric current to stop any irregular and dangerous activity of the heart´s muscles. it can be used when the heart has stopped (cardiac arrest) or when it is beating in a highly irregular (and ineffective) manner
exogenous
relating to things outside the body
erythrocyte
a mature blood cell that contains haemoglobin to carry oxygen to the bodily tissues
platelets
tiny bits of protoplasm found in the blood that are essential for blood clotting. These cells bind tighter to form a clot and prevent bleeding at the site of injury
baroreceptors
sensory nerve endings that are stimulated by changes in pressure. Located in the walls of blood vessels such as the carotid sinus
carotid artery
the mind artery that takes blood from the heart via the neck to the brain
heart failure
a state in which the heart muscle is damaged or weakened and is unable to generate a cardiac output sufficient to meet the demands of the body
atheroma
fatty deposit in the intimate (inner lining) of an artery
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin 2 causes the muscles surrounding blood vessels to contract and thereby narrows the blood vessels. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors decrease the production of angiotensin 2, allowing blood vessels to dilate, and reduce blood pressure
diuretics
elevates the rate of bodily urine excretion, reducing the amount of fluid within the cardiovascular system, and reducing pressure within
beta-blockers
block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine on B-adrenergic receptors, which mediate the fight-or-flight response, within the heart and in muscles surrounding the arteries. In doing so, they reduce increases in blood pressure associated with sympathetic activation
low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
the main function of LDL seems to be to carry cholesterol to various tissues throughout the body. LDL is sometimes referred to as “bad” cholesterol because elevated levels of LDL correlate most directly with coronary heart disease
high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
lipoproteins are fat protein complexes in the blood that transport cholesterol, triglycerides and other lipids to various tissues. The main function of HDL appears to be to carry excess cholesterol to the liver for “re-packing” or excretion in the bile. Higher levels of HDL seem to be protective against CHD, so HDL is sometimes referred to as “good” cholesterol
statins
drugs used to reduce cholesterol levels
myocardinal infarction
death of the heart muscle due to a stoppage of the blood supply. More often known as heart attack
clot busters
drugs which dissolve clots associated with myocardinal infarction and can prevent damage to the heart following such an event. Are best used within one hour of the infarction
angina
severe pain in the chest associated with a temporary insufficient supply of blood to the heart
vasospasm
a situation in which the muscles of artery walls in the heart contract and relax rapidly, resulting in a reduction of the flow of blood through artery
Coronary artery bypass graft
surgical procedure in which veins or arteries from elsewhere in the patient´s body are grafted from the aorta to the coronary arteries, bypassing blockages caused by atheroma in the cardiac arteries and improving the blood supply to the heart
emphysema
a late effect of chronic infection or irritation of the bronchial tubes. When the bronchi become irritated, some of the airways may become obstructed or the walls of the tiny air sacs may tear, trapping air in the lung beyond them. As a result, the lungs may become enlarged, at the same time becoming less efficient in exchanging oxygen for carbon dioxide
Chronic Bronchitis
an imflammation of the bronchi, the main air passanges in the lungs, which persists for a long period or repeatedly recurs. Characterised by excessive bronchial mucus and a cough that produces sputum for three months or more in at least two consecutive years
subjective
personal, i.e. what a person think and reports (e.g. excitement) as opposed to what is objective. Subjective is generally related to internal interpretations of events rather than observable features
objective
i.e. real, visible or systematically measurable (e.g. adrenaline levels). Generally pertains to something that can be seen, or recorded, by others (as opposed to subjective
socialisation
the process by which a person learns - from family teachers, peers - the rules, norms and moral codes of behaviour that are expected of them
neuroticism
a personality trait reflected in the tendency to be anxious, feel guilty and experience generally negative thought patterns
Negative Affectivity
a dispositional tendency to experience persistent and pervasive negative or low mood and self-concept
type A behaviour (TAB)
a constellation of characteristics, mannerisms and behaviour including competitiveness, time urgency, impatience, easily aroused hostility, rapid and vigorous speech patterns and expressive behaviour. Extensively studied in relation to the aetiology of coronary heart disease, where hostility seems central
repression
a defensive coping style that serves to protect the person from negative memories or anxiety-producing thought by preventing their gaining access to consciousness
comperative optimism
initially termed “unrealistic optimism” this term refers to an individual´s estimate of their risk of experiencing a negative event compared with similar others
monitors
a generalised coping style that involves attending to the source of stress of threat and trying to deal with it directly, e.g. through information gathering/attending to threat-relevant info (as opposed to blunters)
blunters
a general coping style that involves minimising or avoiding the source of threat or stress i.e. avoiding threat-relevant information (as opposed to monitors)
illness cognition
the cognitive processes involved in a person´s perception or interpretation of symptoms or illness and how they represent it to themselves
social identity
a person´s sense of who they are at a group, rather than personal and individual, level (e.g. you are a student, possibly a female)
illness behaviour
behaviour that characterises a person who is sick and who seeks a remedy, e.g. taking medication. usually precedes formal diagnosis, when behaviour is described as sick role behaviour
lay referral system
an informal network of individuals (e.g. friends, family, colleagues) turned to for advice or info about symptoms and other health-related matters. Often but no solely used prior to seeking a formal medical opinion
sick role behaviour
the activities undertaken by a person diagnosed as sick in order to try to get well
morbidity
costs associated with illness such as disability, injury
health hardiness
the extent to which a person is committed to and involved in health-relevnt activities, perceives control over their health and responds to health stressors as challenges or opportunities for growth
lumpectomy
a surgical procedure in which only the tumour and a small area of surrounding tissue are removed. contrasts with mastectomy in which the whole breast is removed
stem cell transplants
procedure in which stem cells are replaced within the bone marrow following radiotherapy or chemotherapy or disease such as leukaemia where they may be damaged
melanoma
a form of skin cancer. Usually begins in a pore mole and has poor prognosis unless treated early
transient ischaemic attacks
short periods of reduced blood flow to the brain resulting in symptoms including short periods of confusion, weakness and other minor neurological symptoms
stress reactivity
the physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate or blood pressure, experienced during a potentially stressful encounter
coping self-efficacy
the belief that one can carry out a particular coping response in a given set of circumstances
type C personality
a cluster of personality characteristics manifested in stoic, passive and non-emotionally expressive coping responses. Thought to be associated with an elevated cancer risk
type D personality
a personality type characterised by high negative affectivity and social inhibition
expressed emotion
the disclosure of emotional experiences as a means of reducing stress; often achieved by describing the experience in writing
congestive heart failure
a disorder in which the heart loses its ability to pump blood efficiently. As a consequence, many organs do not receive enough oxygen and nutrients, leading to the potential for them to become damaged and, therefore, not work effectively
stress management training
a generic term for interventions designed to teach participants how to cope with stress
cognitive restructering
a reconsideration of automatic negative or catastrophic thoughts to make them more in line with reality
self-talk
talking to oneself (internally). Can be negative and thus add to stress. Therapeutically, individuals are thought to use self-talk in a way that helps them to keep calm
stress inoculation training
a form of stress-reducing intervention in which participants are taught to control stress by rehearsing prior to going into stressful situations. Participants are taught to relax and use calming self-talk. Approach developed by Donald Meichenbaum
post-traumatic stress disorder
a disorder that forms a response to experiencing a traumatic event. The key elements are unwanted repetitive memories of the event, often in the form of flashbacks, attempts at avoidance of such memories, and a generally raised level of arousal
psychological debriefing
a procedure in which people who have been through a particular trauma talk through the trauma in a structured way with a counsellor
exposure therapy
a form of therapy involving exposure to traumatic memories, based on the theoretical assumptions that continued exposure will result in a gradual reduction in the level of fear associated with such memories
eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR)
a form of therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder involving exposure to traumatic memories while repeatedly moving the eyes. Its method of working is not clear. However, the most popular theory is that when the eyes move back and forth this creates brain activity similar to that which occurs during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. This may help the brain to process the “stuck” material, enabling the person to arrive at an adaptive resoultion
colonoscopy
a minor surgical procedure in which a small piece of bowel wall is cut from the colon. This can then be tested for the presence of malignant cells
phantom limb pain
a phenomenon that occurs following amputation of a limb, in which the individual feels like they still have their limb, and the limb is in pain
migraine
a headache with symptoms including nausea, vomiting or sensitivity to light. Associated with changes in vascular flow within the brain
trigeminal neuralgia
a painful inflammation of the trigeminal nerve that causes sharp and severe facial pain
cold pressor test
procedure in which participants place their arm in a mixture of water and ice maintaining the water temperature at between 0 and 3 degrees
sciatica
pain down the leg, which is caused by irritation of the main nerve into the leg, the sciatic nerve. This pain tends to be caused where the nerves pass through and emerge from the lower bones of the spine (lumbar vertebrae)
gate control theory of pain
a theory of pain developed by Melzack and Wall in which a “gate” is used as a metaphor for the chemicals, including endorphins, that mitigate the experience of pain
patient-controlled analgesia (PCA)
a technique through which small doses of analgesic drugs, usually opioids, are administered (usually by an intravenous drip and controlled by a pump) by patients themselves. It is mostly used for the control of post-operative pain
catastrophic thoughts
automatic thoughts that exaggerate the negative aspects of any situation
temporomandibular disorder pain
a variety of conditions that cause tenderness and pain in the temporomandibular joint (hinge joint of the jaw)
biofeedback
technique of using monitoring devices to provide info regarding an automatic bodily function, such as a heart rate or blood pressure. Used in an attempt to gain some voluntary control over that function
colposcopy
a method used to identify cels that may develop into cancer of the cervix. Sometimes follows a cervial smear if abnormalities are found. A colposcope is low-power microscope
cervical smear
smear of cells taken from the cervix to examine for the presence of cell changes indicating risk of cancer
Coronary artery bypass graft
surgical procedure in which veins or arteries from elsewhere in the patient´s body are grafted from the aorta to the coronary arteries, bypassing blockages caused atheroma in the cardiac arteries and improving the blood supply to the heart muscle
coping effectiveness training
a specialist form of stress management in which participants are taught to alter the nature of their coping efforts to suit the particular type of demands they are facing: using emotion-focused coping where the situation cannot be changed and problem-focused coping where it can
malignant melanoma
a rare but potentially lethal form of skin cancer
benefit finding
a process of finding beneficial outcomes as a consequence of what is normally seen as a negative event, such as developing cancer or being infected with the HIV
radical prostatectomy
otherwise known as a total prostatectomy, this involves using surgery to remove all of the prostate as a cure for prostate cancer
treadmill test
a test of cardiovascular fitness in which participants gradually increase the level of exercise on a treadmill while having their heart monitored with a electrocardiogram
exercise programme
a key element of most cardiac rehabilitation, including a progressive increase in exercise usually starting in a gym, sometimes developing into exercise in the home and beyond
