Definitions for Final

Question 1

Hindsight bias

Answer 1

the tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome

Question 2

thought experiment

Answer 2

when you cannot conduct an experiment for some reason or another and therefore you just think of how you would conduct it and test it which will often allow you to gain some insights you weren’t expecting

Question 3

Dissonance theory

Answer 3

the theory that people like their thoughts to be consistent with one another and will do substantial mental work to achieve such cognitive consistency

Question 4

Participant observation

Answer 4

observing some phenomenon at close range

Question 5

Self-selection

Answer 5

when the researcher has no control over a participant’s score or level of a given variable. Properties of the participants are not assigned by the researcher

Question 6

Longitudinal studies

Answer 6

collecting measures at different points in time

Question 7

IV/DV

Answer 7

The independent variable (which the scientist manipulates) is supposed to be the cause of the dependant variable (which thew scientist measures

Question 8

External validity vs Internal validity

Answer 8

External validity is a measure of well the study conditions relate to real life while Internal validity is a measure of how the result was ONLY caused by the manipulated variable and nothing else, this is essential. It also requires that the experiment seem realistic and plausible to participants

Question 9

Reliability

Answer 9

the degree to which the same result is obtained no matter how many time the experiment is conducted

Question 10

Measurement validity

Answer 10

the correlation between a measure and some outcome the measure is supposed to predict (how an IQ score predicts school grades)

Question 11

Statistical significance

Answer 11

a measure of the probability that an event could have occurred by chance alone

Question 12

Two factors determining statistical significance

Answer 12

The size of the difference between groups in an experiment or the size of a relationship between variables in a correlational study/
The number of cases on which the finding is based.
The larger the difference or relationship and the larger the number of cases: the greater the statistical significance

Question 13

Open science

Answer 13

the way scientists are encouraged to share all their data and methods when conducting a study

Question 14

IRB

Answer 14

institutional review board checks if a study is ethical

Question 15

Informed consent

Answer 15

when the participants have been warned of the possible harm involved in the study

Question 16

Deception research

Answer 16

when informing the participants would have defeated the purpose of the study and therefore the participants are not warned

Question 17

Basic science vs applied science

Answer 17

Basic science is trying to understand a phenomenon in its own right rather than trying to solve it while
Applied science tries to solve a real life issue

Basic research can give rise to theories that will lead to interventions to change something
Applied research can produce results that feed back into basic science

Question 18

Self-schemas

Answer 18

represent people’s beliefs and feelings about themselves both in general and in particular situations.
They are more than simple storage of knowledge, they also help us navigate and make sense of all the information being thrown at us everyday

Question 19

Reflected self-appraises

Answer 19

our beliefs about other’s reactions to us. This means that we see ourselves partly in the light of others

Question 20

Working self concept

Answer 20

the idea that we only show a part of ourselves in any given context, usually the most appropriate part to the situation

Question 21

independent self-construal vs interdependent self-construal

Answer 21

An independent self-construal promotes an inward focus on the self, whereas an interdependent self-construal promotes an outward focus on the social situation

Question 22

Social comparison theory

Answer 22

when people have no objective standard by which to evaluate their traits or abilities, they do so largely by comparing themselves with others

Question 23

Self-esteem

Answer 23

the overall positive or negative evaluation people have of themselves

Question 24

State self-esteem vs Trait self esteem

Answer 24

State: the dynamic, changeable self-evaluations a person experiences as momentary feelings about the self
Trait: the stable part of one’s identity

Question 25

Contingencies of self-worth

Answer 25

a perspective maintaining that people’s self-esteem is contingent on the success and failures in domains on which they have based their self-worth. In other words self esteem goes up when you do well in areas that matter to you

Question 26

Sociometer

Answer 26

self-esteem in an internal subjective index of how well we are seen by others and hence how likely we are to be included or excluded by them

Question 27

Self-enhancement

Answer 27

the desire to maintain, increase or protect positive views of the self. Strategies are:
Self serving construals: people think of themselves as better than average because they change the definition to their interest
Self-affirmation: when people remind themselves that they are good in another domain when they are told bad news in a certain domain (I got a bad grade in math but at least im good at music)

Question 28

Self-verification theory

Answer 28

people sometimes strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about themselves because such self-views give them a sense of coherence and predictability

Question 29

Self-regulation

Answer 29

the process by which people initiate, alter and control their behaviours in pursuit of their goals

Question 30

Self-discrepancy theory

Answer 30

people hold beliefs about not only what the are actually like but also what they would ideally be likened what they think they ought to be (ought self represents your obligations)

Question 31

promotion focus

Answer 31

a focus on attaining positive outcomes. Prevention focus isa focus on avoiding negative outcomes

Question 32

Implementation intention

Answer 32

an ‘if-then’ plan to engage in a goal-directed behaviour

Question 33

Self-presentation

Answer 33

presenting the person we would like others to believe we are (also called impression management)

Question 34

Self-monitoring

Answer 34

the tendency to monitor one’s behaviour to fit the demands of the current situation

Question 35

Self-handicapping

Answer 35

the tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviour to protect the self in public and prevent others from making unwanted inferences based on poor performance

Question 36

the 2 mental processes involved in social cognition and their interplay determines the judgments we make

Answer 36

Reason and intuition

Question 37

Social cognition

Answer 37

the study of how people think about the world, and how they interpret the past, understand the present and predict the future

Question 38

first impressions

Answer 38

When making first impressions, people look at 2 dimensions: whether the person should be approached or avoided, and whether the person is a top dog or an underdog.
Adults with baby-features (big eyes, round face,…) are usually seen as more trustworthy and weak, this is because the cuteness of young mammals triggers an automatic reaction that ensures that the young are properly being taken care of

Question 39

Pluralistic ignorance

Answer 39

when someone acts differently then their true beliefs in fear of the social consequences

Question 40

The self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 40

when our expectations lead us to act in ways that elicit the very behaviour we expected from others (thinking someone else doesn’t like you so you become cold which makes them be cold to you )

Question 41

Factors that reduce the reliability of secondhand information

Answer 41

Ideological distortions: people have a desire for certain aspects of the story to be emphasized, which leads to mislead the whole truth and only provide part of it, the part that makes our point seem the best
Overemphasis on bad news: one of the most pervasive causes of distortion in secondhand accounts is the desire to entertain. We emphasize on some points and round up some points to make the story more interesting. This also happens in mass media, bad news ten to be more newsworthy than good news “if it bleeds it leads”
Bad news bias can lead people to think that they are in more danger than they actually are. Studies have constantly found a positive correlation between time spending watching tv and the fear of victimization. The violence depicted in tv programs can make the world appear to be a dangerous place, especially when the televised images resonate with what people see in their own environment

Question 42

key to successful marketing

Answer 42

not only what information to present but also how it is presented. Countless studies have proven that slight variations int he presentation of information (how and when it was presented) can have profound effects on people’s judgments

Question 43

order effects

Answer 43

The order in which items are presented can have powerful influence on judgement. When the information presented first exerts the most influence its called the primacy effect. When the last information has the most impact its called a recency effect.

Question 44

Framing effects

Answer 44

the way information is presented, including the order of presentation can frame the way its processed and understood. The frame of reference is changed by re-ordering the information, even though the content of the information remains exactly the same

Question 45

Spin framing

Answer 45

Spin framing varies the content of what is presented. It gives it a spin that makes the audience think strongly about it (changing the war department to the defence department)

Question 46

Positive or negative framing

Answer 46

takes advantage of the fact that everything has a good and bad side and decided to emphasize only one of the two (a 90% successful condom rather than a 10% failure condom). Negative framing often has a higher impact than positive

Question 47

A temporal frame

Answer 47

A temporal frame is because we think differently of the same things at different points in time

Question 48

The confirmation bias

Answer 48

to look for information that will confirm your theory rather than information that Is going to prove it wrong. This is dangerous because if we look mainly for one type of evidence we are probably going to find it

Question 49

bottom-up vs top-down processing

Answer 49

Bottom up processing takes in relevant stimuli from the outside world. Top-down processing filters and interprets bottom up stimuli in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations

Question 50

Recent activation

Answer 50

when the schema we though of last will be the schema activated when thinking of that thing (rather than other schemas describing the thing)

Question 51

Equine activation

Answer 51

when you use the same schema repeatedly and therefore whenever you are evaluating someone you just use that same schema because you are used to it

Question 52

two minds when making decisions

Answer 52

the intuitive system operates quickly and is based on associations and performs many of its operations simultaneously (in parallel). The rational system is slower and more controlled, based on rules and deduction and performs operations one at a time (serially)

Question 53

Heuristics

Answer 53

mental shortcuts that provide serviceable , if usually rather inexact, answers to common problems of judgement. They yield answers that feel right and therefore often forestall more effortful and rational deliberation

Question 54

availability heuristic

Answer 54

The availability heuristic is where recent memories are given greater significance. They are given greater consideration in decision making due to the recency effect. … One example of availability heuristic is airplane accidents. Often, people hear about horrendous crashes or explosions that kill many people.

Question 55

representativeness heuristic

Answer 55

when we try to categorize something by judging how similar it is to our conception of the typical member of the category

Question 56

Fluency

Answer 56

the ease or difficulty associated with information processing

Question 57

Base-rate information

Answer 57

when we base information on the frequency of a category (this person is more likely to be gay because there is a lot of gay people in this town

Question 58

An illusory correlation

Answer 58

the belief that two things are correlated when they are not.

Question 59

observer vs actor perception

Answer 59

The observer usually makes attribute actions to someone (saying bill gate did all this just cause he was a genius), when the actor usually attribute these actions to situational factors (his luck)

Question 60

causal attributions

Answer 60

The process of trying to understand the causes of people’s behaviour.
People make causal attributions because they need to draw inferences about others and themselves in order to make predictions about future behaviour.
Understanding causal attributions is crucial to understanding everyday social behaviour because we all make causal attributions several times a day and the attribution we make can greatly affect our thoughts, feelings and future behaviour

Question 61

Attribution theory

Answer 61

the study of how people understand the causes of events

Question 62

Explanatory style

Answer 62

someone’s habitual way of explaining things.
This is evaluated on 3 dimensions:
Internal/external: people either attribute bad/good things to be their fault or other’s
Stable/unstable: whether they think it will be present in the future or not
Global/specific: whether it is something that affects many areas of their lives or just the one

Question 63

Gender Differences in attribution of failures

Answer 63

Boys are more like to attribute their failures to a lack of effort while girls to attribute it to a lack of ability

Question 64

The covariation principle

Answer 64

the idea that behaviour should be attributed to potential causes that occur along with the observed behaviour.

Question 65

The discounting principle

Answer 65

the idea that people will assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behaviour if other plausible causes might have produced it (this guy is nice with me only because he wants my answers to the test not because he is a nice person)

Question 66

The augmentation principle

Answer 66

the idea that people will assign greater weight to a particular cause of behaviour if other causes are present that normally would produce a different outcome (I just hit this guy’s car yet he is still being nice to me, he must like me

Question 67

Counterfactual thinking

Answer 67

the thoughts of what might have could have or should have happened “if only” something had occurred differently

Question 68

Emotional amplification

Answer 68

an increase in emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy to imagine the vent not happening (your friend died in a bike accident because she changed her plans last minute to go home biking instead of stay over)

Question 69

The self-serving attributional bias

Answer 69

why people attribute their failures to external circumstances, but success to themselves. It is a motivational bias, motivated by the desire to maintain self-esteem, but it is not always motivated

Question 70

The fundamental attribution error

Answer 70

the tendency to attribute people’s behaviour to elements of their character or personality even if powerful situational forces are acting to produce that behaviour. Causes for this:
Motivational influence and the belief in a just world, by thinking that people get what they reverse we feel reassured (the just world hypothesis)
Perceptual salience and causal attributions: attributions to the person have an edge over situational attributions in everyday causal analysis because people are usually more salient than situations. The situation is secondary and often slighted in the process aw we attempt to establish causal explanations
People who are more tired or more distracted will not adjust as well their initial thought on the person based on circumstances, their first impression of the person will stay what it was and they won’t take into account the environment (the correction phase of attributional analysis)
The degree to which you’re oriented toward the person versus the situation depends now hether you’re an active actor in the situation or just an observer. Actors should be more likely than observers to make situational attributions for particular behaviour. The actor is in a much better position to know if the behaviour is distinctive and thus merits a situational rather than a dispositional attribution

Question 71

difference west and asia

Answer 71

The kinds of social factors that are merely background for north americans appear to be more salient to people from other cultures. Westerners think about themselves more in the context of personal goals, attributes and preferences whereas non-westerners think about themselves more in terms of social roles they occupy and their obligation to others and institutions
Asians are more inclined than Westerners to attribute an actor’s behaviour to the situation rather than to the person’s dispositions
Asians are not just more likely to notice situational cues that might correct a dispositional inference, they might also be less likely to make a dispositional inference in the first place

Question 72

Big five personality dimensions

Answer 72

extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience

Question 73

‘intentional object’

Answer 73

The focus of an emotional experience

Question 74

The principle of serviceable associated habits

Answer 74

the idea that the expressions of human emotion we observe today derive from actions that proved useful in our evolutionary past

Question 75

Display rules

Answer 75

culturally specific rules that govern how when and to whom people express emotions

Question 76

Oxytocin

Answer 76

the chemical released by our brain that fosters commitment in long-term relationship. It enhances sympathy towards one’s own group but may enhance biases against enemies

Question 77

Broaden-and-build hypothesis

Answer 77

the idea that positive emotions broaden thoughts and actions, helping people build social resources

Question 78

Social intuitionist model of moral judgement

Answer 78

the idea that people first have fast emotional reactions to morally related events, which influence the way they reason to arrive at a judgement of right or wrong

Question 79

Moral fundations theory

Answer 79

there are 5 evolved universal moral domains in which specific emotions guide moral judgement: care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, purity/degradation

Question 80

2 measurements of happiness

Answer 80

life satisfaction and emotional well-being

Question 81

Affective forecasting

Answer 81

predicting future emotions, such as whether an event will result in happiness or anger or sadness and for how long

Question 82

Immune neglect

Answer 82

the tendency for people to underestimate their capacity to be resilient in responding to difficult life events which leads them to overestimate the extent to which life’s problems will reduce their personal well-being

Question 83

Localism

Answer 83

we focus too much on the most immediate and most central elements of significant events such as our initial despair when learning a romantic partner is leaving us, while neglecting the possible impact of associated factors or other events

Question 84

2 factors that influence recollections of past pleasures

Answer 84

he peak moment of pleasure during the event strongly predicts how much pleasure you will remember later, second how you feel at the end of the event

Question 85

Duration neglect

Answer 85

to give relative unimportance to the length of an emotional experience, whether good or bad, in judging and remembering the overall experience

Question 86

attitude 3 components

Answer 86

an evaluation of an object along a positive or negative dimensions, which includes 3 components: affect (how much someone likes it), cognition (thoughts that reinforces the feelings towards it such as knowledge or beliefs about it) and behaviour (tendency to approach or avoid it)

Question 87

Likert scale

Answer 87

a numerical scale used to assess people’s attitudes, a scale that includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extremes

Question 88

A response latency

Answer 88

the amount of time it takes someone to respond to a stimulus, such as an attitude question. This measures the accessibility of the attitude. Someone who is faster at answering is likely to have a stronger opinion about it

Question 89

implicit attitude measures

Answer 89

Another way of measuring attitudes is implicit attitude measures in which the measure does not involve self-report. This lets researchers tap on non conscious attitudes

Question 90

The collective of cognitive consistency theories

Answer 90

the impact of behaviour on attitudes reflect the powerful tendency we have to justify or rationalize our behaviour and to miniminize any inconsistencies between our attitudes and our actions

Question 91

cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 91

the theory that inconsistency between a person’s thought sentiments and actions create an aversive emotional state (dissonance) that leads to efforts to restore consistency

Question 92

Effort justification

Answer 92

the tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing

Question 93

Induced- or forced- compliance

Answer 93

to subtly compel people to behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes or values in order to elicit dissonance and therefore change in their original attitudes and values

Question 94

Self-perception theory

Answer 94

people come to know their own attitude by looking at their behaviour and the context in which it occurred and inferring what their attitude must be

Question 95

Cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 95

attitude change only happens if their is an uncomfortable psychological feeling arousing due to inconsistency between attitude and behaviour.

Question 96

System justification theory

Answer 96

the theory that people are motivated to see the existing sociopolitical system as desirable, fair and legitimate

Question 97

Terror management theory (TMT)

Answer 97

the theory that people deal with the potentially crippling anxiety associated with the knowledge of the inevitability of death by striving for more symbolic immortality through preserving valued cultural worldview and believing they have lived up to the culture’s standards

Question 98

ELM, Elaboration Likelihood Model

Answer 98

there are two routes of persuasion: central and peripheral. Central route of persuasion occurs when people think carefully and deliberately about the content of a persuasive message, they rely on experiences of their own to evaluate the message, involves systematic elaboration of the persuasive arguments. Peripheral route is when people focus more on superficial aspects of the message, characterized by less effortful processing of relatively superficial cues

Question 99

two factors matter to decide which route to take

Answer 99

Motivation: we’re more likely to go through the central route if the message has personnel consequences.
Ability: were more likely to take the central route if we have more knowledge on the subject

Question 100

The 3 Ws of persuasion

Answer 100

“who” (source of the message), “what” (content or message itself), “to whom” (intended audience)

Question 101

Source characteristics

Answer 101

attractiveness, credibility, certainty

Question 102

Sleeper effect

Answer 102

an effect that occurs when a persuasive message from an unreliable source initially exerts little influence but later causes attitudes to shifts

Question 103

Message characteristics

Answer 103

message quality, vividness, fear, culture

Question 104

Identifiable victim effect

Answer 104

people are more incline to be persuaded to act on behalf of a cause by portrayals of clearly identifiable victims, such as the children in UNICEF commercials

Question 105

Audience characteristics

Answer 105

need for cognition, mood, age

Question 106

Metacognition

Answer 106

the thought we have about our thoughts

Question 107

The self-validation hypothesis

Answer 107

feeling confident about out thoughts validates those thoughts, making it more likely that we will be swayed in their direction

Question 108

shared attention

Answer 108

When people perceive that they are attending to a stimulus simultaneously with many others (shared attention) they’re inclines to process the stimulus more deeply resulting in persuasion via the central route

Question 109

Agenda control

Answer 109

efforts of the media to select certain events and topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues and events people think are important

Question 110

Thought polarization hypothesis

Answer 110

more extended thoughts about a particular issue tend to produce a more extreme entrenched attitude

Question 111

Attitude inoculation

Answer 111

small attacks on people’s beliefs that engage their preexisting attitudes, prior commitments, and background knowledge, enabling them to counteract a subsequent larger attack and thus resist persuasion

Question 112

Homophile

Answer 112

the tendency for people to associate disproportionally with people who are like them

Question 113

Conformity

Answer 113

changing one’s behaviour or beliefs in response to some real or imagines pressure from others

Question 114

compliance

Answer 114

when a person responds favourably to an explicit request by another person

Question 115

Obedience

Answer 115

when a more powerful person issues a demand to which the less powerful submits

Question 116

Ideomotor action

Answer 116

the phenomenon whereby merely thinking about a behaviour makes performing it more likely. This is because the brain regions responsible for perception overlap with those responsible for action

Question 117

Informational social influence

Answer 117

the influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper and effective

Question 118

Normative social influence

Answer 118

the influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval and other social sanctions

Question 119

Internalization

Answer 119

private acceptance of a proposition, orientation or ideology. This is influenced in formative social influence which makes us adopt the group’s ideology, whereas in normative social influence we may say something to fit in the group but keep thinking differently

Question 120

minorities vs majorities influence

Answer 120

Minorities have their effect primarily through informational social influence rather than normative social influence
Majorities typically elicit more conformity but it is often of the public compliance sort. In contrast, minorities typically influence fewer people, but the nature of the influence is often deeper and results in true private attitude change

Question 121

Reason-based approaches

Answer 121

aim at convincing people that they would be better off choosing a particular course of action

Question 122

Norm of reciprocity

Answer 122

a norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them, give back to who gave to you

Question 123

Reciprocal concession techniques/ door in the face

Answer 123

a compliance approach that involves asking someone for a very large favour that will certainly be refused and then following that request with one for a smaller favour (which tends to be seen as a concession the target feels compelled to honour)

Question 124

Foot in the door technique

Answer 124

a compliance approach that involves making an initial small request with which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behaviour of interest. This works because it makes people feel like they are the type to accept request

Question 125

Negative state relief hypothesis

Answer 125

taking an action to benefit someone else, especially when its for a good cause, is one way to make ourselves look better

Question 126

descriptive vs prescriptive norms

Answer 126

Descriptive norms are simply descriptions of what is typically done.
Prescriptive norms are what one is supposed to do (also called injunctive norms

Question 127

Reactance theory

Answer 127

the idea that people reassert they perogatives in response to the unpleasant state or arousal they experience when they believe their freedoms are threatened

Question 128

Communal relationships

Answer 128

a relationships in which the individual feel a special responsibility for one another and give and receive according to the principle of need, these are often long-term

Question 129

exchange relationship

Answer 129

a relationship in which individuals feel little responsibility toward each other, giving and receiving are governed by concern about equity and reciprocity, these are usually short term

Question 130

Social exchange theory

Answer 130

based on the idea that how people feel about a relationship depends on their assessment of its costs and rewards

Question 131

Comparison level:

Answer 131

expectations people have about what they think they deserve or expect to get out of a relationship

Question 132

Comparison level for alternatives

Answer 132

expectations people have about what they can get out of available, alternative relationships

Question 133

Equity theory

Answer 133

the idea that people are motivated to pursue fairness, or equity, in their relationships. A relationship is considered equitable when the benefits are proportionate to the effort both people put in it (the relationship can be equal when one person receives more than the other as long as they put more effort than the other

Question 134

Attachment theory

Answer 134

the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person’s whole life

Question 135

Functional distance

Answer 135

the influence in an architectural layout to encourage or inhibit certain activities, including contact between people

Question 136

Mere exposure effect

Answer 136

the idea that repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as an objet or a person leads to greater liking of the stimulus

Question 137

attraction is influenced by?

Answer 137

similarity, proximity, attractiveness

Question 138

Complementarity

Answer 138

the tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from and complement their own. This effect is more limited than similarity

Question 139

Status change hypothesis

Answer 139

romantic attraction increases when two individuals complement each other in terms of their social status by offering each other elevated status, through romantic partnership where they themselves are lacking

Question 140

Halo effect

Answer 140

the common belief that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance

Question 141

Reproductive fitness

Answer 141

the capacity to pass one’s genes to subsequent generations

Question 142

3 categories of love

Answer 142

Companionate love is the love we typically experience with friends and family members, people we trust, share activities with and like to be around
Compassionate love is a kin to a communal relationship, with bonds that focus on monitoring and responding to another person’s needs such as a mother and her child
Romantic love is the love associated with intense emotion and sexual desire, also referred as passionate love

Question 143

Investment model of commitment

Answer 143

a model of interpersonal relationships maintaining that 3 determinants make partners more committed to each other: relationship satisfaction, few alternative partners, and investments in the relationship

Question 144

The four horsemen of the apocalypse

Answer 144

couples that find fault and criticize each other, people prone to avoidance, unable to talk openly, refuse to consider that they are wrong, contempt (looking down on another) Criticism, Contempt, Defensiveness and Stonewalling

Question 145

3 perspectives on hostility

Answer 145

The economic perspective identifies the roots of intergroup hostility in competing interests that can set groups apart from one another
The motivational perspective emphasizes the psychological needs that lead to intergroup conflicts
The cognitive perspective traces the origin of stereotyping to the same cognitive processes that enable people to categorize, say, items of furniture into distinct classes

Question 146

Stereotypes

Answer 146

beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups, stereotyping is a way of categorizing people, it involves thinking of a person as part of a group rather than as an individual

Question 147

Prejudice

Answer 147

an attitudinal and affective response toward a group and its members, it involves prejudicing others because they are part of a group

Question 148

Discrimination

Answer 148

behaviours directed towards group members, it involves unfair treatment of others based on solely their group membership

Question 149

Modern racism

Answer 149

a rejection of explicitly racist Beliefs while nevertheless feeling animosity towards a group or being uncomfortable around them or suspicious of them

Question 150

IAT

Answer 150

the implicit association test is a technique for revealing nonconscious attitudes toward different stimuli, particularly groups of people

Question 151

AMP

Answer 151

affect misattribution procedure, a priming procedure designed to asses people’s implicit associations to different stimulus, including their association to various ethnic, racial, occupational and lifestyle groups

Question 152

Realistic group conflict theory

Answer 152

all these things are likely to arise from competition for limited resources, as well as ideologies

Question 153

Ethnocentrism

Answer 153

to glorify one’s own group while vilifying other groups

Question 154

Superordinate goals

Answer 154

a goal that transcends the interests of any one groups and can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together

Question 155

Minimal group paradigm

Answer 155

an experiment paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these minimal groups are inclined to behave toward one another

Question 156

Social identity theory

Answer 156

the idea that a person’s self-concept and self-esteem derive not only from personal identity and accomplishments, but also from the status and accomplishments of the various groups the person belongs to

Question 157

Basking in reflected glory

Answer 157

taking pride in the accomplishments of other people in one’s group, such as when sports fans identify with a winning team

Question 158

Paired distinctiveness

Answer 158

the pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they occur together

Question 159

Sub typing

Answer 159

explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotypes group that can be excepted to differ from the group as a whole

Question 160

Outgroup homogeneity effect

Answer 160

the tendency for people to assume that within group similarity is much stronger for out-groups than in-groups

Question 161

Own-race identification bias

Answer 161

the tendency for people to be better able to recognize and distinguish faces from their own race than other races

Question 162

Attributional ambiguity

Answer 162

not knowing the underlying causes of what they experience

Question 163

Stereotype threat

Answer 163

the fear of confirming the stereotype that other have about one’s group

Question 164

Contact hypothesis

Answer 164

the proposition that prejudice can be reduced by putting members of majority and minority groups in frequent contact with one another

Question 165

group

Answer 165

a collection of individuals who have relations to one another and make them interdependent to some significant degree

Question 166

Social facilitation

Answer 166

initially a term for enhanced performance in the presence of others; now a broader term for the effect, positive or negative, of the presence of others on performance

Question 167

Dominant response

Answer 167

in a person’s hierarchy of possible responses in any context, response that the person is most likely to make

Question 168

Evaluation apprehension

Answer 168

people’s concern about how they might appear in the eyes of others, or be evaluated by them

Question 169

Social loafing

Answer 169

the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored

Question 170

Groupthink

Answer 170

faulty thinking by members of highly cohesive groups in which the critical scrutiny that should be devoted to the issues at hand is subverted by social pressure to reach consensus

Question 171

Self-censorship

Answer 171

withholding information or opinions in group discussions

Question 172

To avoid groupthink

Answer 172

be open to outside input, designate someone as devil’s advocate

Question 173

Group polarization

Answer 173

the tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals, whichever way the group as a whole is leaning, group discussion tends to make it lean further in that direction

Question 174

The persuasive argument account

Answer 174

when the issue is discussed by the group, each person is likely to be exposed to new arguments which are more likely to be skewed in the direction the people were predisposed to

Question 175

The soil comparison interpretation

Answer 175

people tend to see themselves as riskier than average, therefore when in a group setting they all try to be a little riskier than usual to prove it and the whole group ends up being riskier. This is a group polarization effect

Question 176

Power

Answer 176

the ability to control one’s own outcomes and this of others, the freedom to act. Your power is your ability to influence others and make a difference in the world

Question 177

Status

Answer 177

the outcome of an evaluation of attributes that produces differences in respect and prominence

Question 178

Authority

Answer 178

the power that derives from institutionalized role or arrangement

Question 179

Dominance

Answer 179

the behaviour enacted with the goal of acquiring or demonstrating power

Question 180

Approach/inhibition theory

Answer 180

a theory maintaining that high power individuals are inclined to go after their goals and make quick judgments, whereas low power individuals are more likely to constrain their behaviour and pay careful attention to others

Question 181

Deindividuation

Answer 181

a reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation that can come over people when they are in large groups

Question 182

The deindividuated state

Answer 182

characterized by diminished self-observation and self-evaluation and a lessened concern with how others evaluate us

Question 183

Individuation

Answer 183

an enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self, which generally leads people to act carefully and deliberately and in accordance with their priority and values

Question 184

Self-awareness theory

Answer 184

a theory maintaining that when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behaviour conforms to their internal standards and values

Question 185

Spotlight effect

Answer 185

people’ conviction that other people are paying attention to them more then they actually are

Question 186

Hostile aggression vs Instrumental aggression

Answer 186

behaviour motivated by feelings of anger and hostility, where the primary aim is to harm another, either physically or psychologically. Instrumental aggression in contrast refers to behaviour that is intended to harm another in service of motives other than pure hostility (ie to gain status, to attract attention, to acquire wealth)

Question 187

5 reactions to playing violent video games

Answer 187

Increase aggressive behaviour
Reduce prosocial positive behaviour
Increase aggressive thoughts
Increase aggressive emotions especially anger
Increase blood pressure and heart rate, two things associated with fighting

Question 188

Dehumanization

Answer 188

the attribution of non-human characteristics and denial of human qualities to groups other than one’s own

Question 189

A culture of honour

Answer 189

a culture defined by its members’ strong concerns about their own and others’ reputations, leading to sensitivity to insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong

Question 190

Rape-prone culture

Answer 190

a culture in which rape tends to be used as an act of war against enemy women, as a ritual act, or as a threat against women to keep them subservient to men. Rape-prone cultures were more likely to have high levels of violence generally, a history of frequent warfare and an emphasis on machismo and make toughness.

Question 191

gender differences in aggression

Answer 191

Women seem to exceed men in what’s known as relational aggression or emotional aggression
Males are the big majority of crimes, a way bigger tendency to to engage in physical violence

Question 192

Precarious manhood hypothesis

Answer 192

the idea that a man’s gender identity of strength and toughness may be lost under various conditions and that such a loss can trigger aggressive behaviour

Question 193

Reactive devaluation

Answer 193

attaching less value to an offer in negotiation once the opposing group makes it

Question 194

Altruism

Answer 194

prosocial behaviour that benefits others without regards to consequences for oneself

Question 195

3 motives required for any altruistic action

Answer 195

Social reward, enjoying the positive regards of others. They can be so as powerful to create competitive altruism
Personal distress, people help others in order to reduce their own distress (hurting to see someone hurt)
Empathic concern, the feeling when identifying someone in need and the intention to Enhance their wellbeing, taking the other’s point of view results in sympathy
The first 2 are egoistic. These are often spur of the moment feelings, impulses

Question 196

Volunteerism

Answer 196

assistance a person regularly provides to another person or group with no expectations of compensation

Question 197

Bystander intervention

Answer 197

assistance given by a witness to someone in need

Question 198

Diffusion of responsibility vs pluralistic ignorance

Answer 198

a reduction of the sense of urgency to help someone in an emergency or dangerous situation, based on the assumption that others who are present will help. In pluralistic ignorance you are not sure the person needs help because no one around you is helping

Question 199

4 reasons people are more likely to help in villages than cities

Answer 199

Milgram said its because there is too much stimulus in cities to register it all
Diversity hypothesis, people are more likely to help others similar to themselves which is less common in cities
More people are around to help in urban areas which leads to more diffusion of responsibility
In rural areas people’s actions are more likely to be seen by someone they know and can judge them, whereas in cities everyone around is a stranger

Question 200

Kin selection

Answer 200

an evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of one’s genetic relatives, even at a cost to one’s own survival and reproduction. You are more likely to favour people with which you share the most genes

Question 201

Reciprocal altruism

Answer 201

helping others with the expectations that they will probably return the favour

Question 202

Prisoners’ dilemma

Answer 202

a situation involving pay off to two people who must decide whether to cooperate or defect. In the end, trust and cooperation lead to higher joint payoffs than mistrust and defection

Question 203

Reputation

Answer 203

the collective beliefs, evaluations and impressions people hold about an individual within a social network

Question 204

Processes involved in court law

Answer 204

Pretrial events: inclue eye witness identification, attempts to elicit confession, efforts to distinguish lies from sincere efforts to tell the truth
Issues related to the trial itself including jury selection and deliberation
Post-trial events: include administration of punishment

Question 205

voir dire

Answer 205

Juries are randomly selected, then they go through voir dire which consists of being asked questions to make sure they are reasonably impartial and not biased against a side

Question 206

Peremptory challenge

Answer 206

the right for the attorneys to exclude a certain amount of juror without any justification

Question 207

Scientific jury selection

Answer 207

a statistical approach to jury selection whereby members of different demographic groups in the community are asked their attitudes toward various issues related to a trial, and defence and prosecuting attorneys try to influence the selection of jurors accordingly. In this way, the jurors themselves are not questioned, just stats about the community

Question 208

Death-qualified jury

Answer 208

a jury from which prospective jurors would never recommend the death penalty have been excluded. By excluding everyone against death penalty from jurors, there are higher chances that the person found guilty will be charged with death penalty

Question 209

Minority vs majority juries

Answer 209

It is rare in real life that the minority overcomes the majority in jury decisions.
The majority prevails through the very processes of informational and normative social influence .
A 12 person jury is more likely to have a bigger minority and therefore more deliberation.
When verdicts can be given without unanimity, minority opinions are often disregarded once a sufficient majority has been reached

Question 210

Compensatory damage

Answer 210

given to recover the cost from the harm that has been done, these are evaluated by economic analyses of the harm done

Question 211

Punitive award damage

Answer 211

more subjective, they are designed to prevent the guilty from acting that way again

Question 212

How jurors make their decision

Answer 212

Jurors to make these decisions consult their sense of outrage at the defendant’s behaviour (which is affected by how recklessly the defendant behaved and how much malice seemed to be involved in the actions), they then translate the outrage into punitive intent (influenced by amount of harm done), then translate that intent into an amount of dollars

Question 213

Punishment

Answer 213

referred to as retributive justice, requiring people to make amends for harm and social transgression

Question 214

Two motives for punishment

Answer 214

Just desserts: an eye for an eye justice, the goal is to avenge a prior evil deed rather than prevent future ones
Deterrence: goal is to reduce the likelihood of future crimes

Question 215

Two attributions that lead people to feel anger about a criminal act

Answer 215

the belief that the perpetrator is responsible for the crime and intended it, the belief that the crime reflects a stable part of the perpetrators’s character. If they believe these two things people will lean towards just dessert punishments

Question 216

Procedural justice

Answer 216

assessments of whether the processes leading to legal outcomes are fair

Question 217

Three factors that shape procedural justice:

Answer 217

Assessment of the neutrality of the authority figure
Trust in the system
Everyone is treated with respect

Question 218

Emotional contagion

Answer 218

the tendency to

converge emotionally with another

Question 219

Operational definition

Answer 219

Definition of a variable in terms of a process used in your research

Question 220

Correlation does not equal Causation

Answer 220

Reverse causation

Third variables

Question 221

Experimental Research

Answer 221

Manipulate one (or more) independent variables, and observe the outcome on the dependent variable:
• INDEPENDENT       ->          DEPENDENT
       variable                              variable
• Independent variable: Typically, comparing an “experimental condition” to a “control condition” that is identical except for one feature of interest

Question 222

Self-Selection problem

Answer 222

allowing participants to somehow determine which condition they are in

Question 223

demand characteristics

Answer 223

cues in the study

that might tell the participant how to behave

Question 224

Construal

Answer 224

People’s interpretation and
inference about the stimuli or situations they
confront

Question 225

Types of social knowledge

Answer 225

• Declarative knowledge: “knowing that”
– Knowledge about types of people and social
situations
• Procedural knowledge: “knowing how”
– Rules, skills, and habits for thinking and acting

Question 226

ACTIVATION

Answer 226

Retrieval of an element of social

knowledge from long term memory

Question 227

Applicability

Answer 227

overlap or “fit” between the features of a
stimulus and the features of some stored
knowledge

Question 228

Accessibility

Answer 228

activation readiness of stored knowledge
how likely is a schema to have a “top-down”
influence

Question 229

Spreading Activation

Answer 229

activation spreads from one concept to

other related concepts in the associative network

Question 230

Sub-liminal

Answer 230

below threshold of

conscious awareness

Question 231

Automatic processing

Answer 231

– efficient (e.g., making judgments while distracted)
– unintended (e.g., snap judgments of personality)
– difficult to control (e.g., prejudice)
– outside of awareness – does this happen? Are we influenced by truly subliminal stimuli? How could we test this properly?

Question 232

Subjective vs Objective threshold

Answer 232

Subjective Threshold: duration 
necessary for subject to be aware of
seeing the stimulus
– Objective Threshold: duration 
necessary for stimulus to have an 
effect

Question 233

Controlled processing

Answer 233

– effortful
– intentional
– controllable
– aware

Question 234

Theory of “Lay Epistemics”

Answer 234

1. Need for closure
2. Desire for validity
3. Motive for specific conclusions

Question 235

Self-Knowledge vs
Self-Evaluation vs
Self-Regulation

Answer 235

Self-Knowledge: “Who am I?”
Self-Evaluation: “How good/bad am I?”
Self-Regulation: Control of behaviour.

Question 236

Subjective Self-awareness vs
Objective Self-awareness vs
Symbolic Self-awareness

Answer 236

Subjective Self-awareness
– Distinguish between self and environment
• Objective Self-awareness
– Simple representation of self
• Symbolic Self-awareness
– Complex, abstract representation of self

Question 237

Declarative self-knowledge vs

Procedural self-knowledge

Answer 237

Declarative self-knowledge  
– self-schemas
• Procedural self-knowledge 
– heuristics and mental habits for thinking about 
oneself

Question 238

Aspects of Self

Answer 238

Bodily self
Spiritual Self
Social self

Question 239

3 aspects of social self

Answer 239

Individual (what makes you unique)
Relational (in relationships)
Collective (member of group)

Question 240

Self-Construal processes

Answer 240

Observation:
– contingency between external
and internal
Assimilation and Differentiation:
– ways in which self is similar to and
different from others
Self-Narrative of autobiographical
memory:
– “Identity” – a sense of unity, oneness
– comes in large part from autobiographical memory, with selected information integrated
in a self-narrative
Self Perception:
- attitudes
- emotions
Social Construction:
- social feedback can shape virtually all our thoughts about self
- intersubjectivity (co-ordination and conflict)
- symbolic interactionism (perceiving self from viewpoint of others)
- self-presentation (control impressions others have of us)

Question 241

Self-Esteem

Answer 241

The overall positive or
negative evaluation people have of
themselves
– Evaluative thoughts and feelings about self

Question 242

Self-Evaluation Procedures:

Answer 242

• 1) Comparison with Standards
• self-esteem = “successes/pretensions”
2) Importance of the domain
3) Attribution
4) Overgeneralization (spreading of evaluation 
from a specific domain to 
more general)
5) Social construction (Symbolic interactionist view of 
how self is evaluated through 
“reflected appraisals”)

Question 243

Some possible underpinnings of

Self-Esteem Motive

Answer 243

Mastery (“Wired to” feel good when we are competent)
Social Sources: (a) Social Rank (Perhaps we are wired to feel good when dominant, high status) (b) Need to Belong (Perhaps we are wired to feel good when accepted, included, attached)

Question 244

Sociometer Theory

Answer 244

Self-esteem feelings may arise from an

evolved system to monitor social inclusion

Question 245

Conditional acceptance

Answer 245

– Versus unconditional acceptance
– Influences self-evaluative feelings
– A person’s ratings of
• “how would I feel about myself” (if I had certain successes and failures) correlates with
• “would others include or exclude me“(if I had certain successes and failures)

Question 246

Internalization

Answer 246

– When evaluating ourselves, our thoughts are
guided by social knowledge about
relationships and patterns of social evaluation

Question 247

Self-awareness

Answer 247

degree to which a
person is paying attention to his/her own
thoughts, feelings, & behaviours

Question 248

The “Werther effect”

Answer 248

After a well publicized suicide, suicide rates increased

Question 249

Informational Influence

Answer 249

– taking others’ comments or actions as a source of
information about what is correct, proper,
effective

Question 250

Descriptive Norms:

Answer 250

–Perceptions of how most people behave in a given

context

Question 251

Normative influence

Answer 251

Influence due to
desire to avoid disapproval, judgment,
etc.

Question 252

Buzz marketing:

Answer 252

Creating the appearance that everyone is talking about you or your product

Question 253

So being watched can lead to

Answer 253

–conformity with norms

–reduced creativity

Question 254

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Answer 254

–Evolution has “wired” humans to seek

closeness and, thereby, emotional security

Question 255

Correlates of Secure pattern

Answer 255

• •highly invested in relationships; tends to have long, trusting ones
• •grieves following loss but achieves resolution
• •enjoys sex (but usually in the context of a long-term relationship)
• •feels well liked by coworkers
• •describes parents in favorable (though not unrealistic) terms
• •is supportive of partner when partner is under stress
• •self-discloses appropriately and likes others to self-disclose
• •seeks integrative, mutually satisfactory resolutions of conflicts
• •regulates anger effectively, tends to forget negative interactions or reinterpret them constructively
• •likely to adopt parents’ religion (and view God as a good parent)

Question 256

Correlates of Avoidant pattern:

Answer 256

• -less invested in relationships, expresses less grief following loss
• •imagines someone other than actual partner during sex
• •has more “one night” sexual encounters
• •prefers to work alone; work is excuse to avoid close relationships
• •describes parents as rejecting and cold
• •more likely to have been abused or to have had a parent with an alcohol problem
• •withdraws support from partner when partner or self is stressed
• •feels bored and distant during social interactions
• •doesn’t like to self-disclose, doesn’t approve of others who disclose

Question 257

Correlates of the Anxious pattern:

Answer 257

• •invested in relationships yet high breakup rate
• •grieves intensely following loss
• •prefers the “cuddly” rather than the genital aspects of sex
• •prefers to work with others but feels under-appreciated at
work
• •binges on chocolate (and is vulnerable to bulimia)
• •describes parents as intrusive and unfair
• •worries about rejection during daily interactions
• •self-discloses too much and indiscriminately, likes disclosers
• •subject to jealousy, unregulated anger and self-directed
anger

Question 258

Transference

Answer 258

• When a Significant Other concept is used in
perceiving a new person who resembles the
significant other in some way

Question 259

Rejection sensitivity:

Answer 259

anxiously expect
rejection from significant others in situations
where rejection is possible

Question 260

Role

Answer 260

a set of behaviours expected of someone

in a particular position in a social system

Question 261

Role conflict

Answer 261

when the
expectations of two roles one has
require incompatible behaviours

Question 262

Role distance

Answer 262

experiencing
and communicating that
one’s role is not a reflection
of one’s true self

Question 263

Role identification

Answer 263

experiencing a role as a

reflection of one’s true self

Question 264

Shared reality

Answer 264

people are motivated to achieve mutual 
understanding or ‘shared reality’ with 
others in order to 
– (i) establish, maintain, and regulate 
interpersonal relationships, and 
– (ii) perceive themselves and their 
environments as stable, predictable, 
meaningful, and potentially controllable