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Cognitive 1 > Definitions for Exam > Flashcards

Definitions for Exam Flashcards

1
Q
  • Electromagnetic spectrum:
A

is a continunum of electromagnetic energy that is produced by electric charges and is radiated by waves

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2
Q
  • Rods and cones
A

are the visual receptors in the retina that contain visual pigment.

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3
Q

Cornea

A

The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber.

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4
Q

The crystalline lens

A

is a transparent, biconvex structure in the eye that, along with the cornea, helps to refract light to be focused on the retina.

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5
Q

The pupil

A

is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to strike the retina.[1] It appears black because light rays entering the pupil are either absorbed by the tissues inside the eye directly, or absorbed after diffuse reflections within the eye that mostly miss exiting the narrow pupil.

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6
Q

The fovea centralis

A

is a small, central pit composed of closely packed cones in the eye.

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7
Q
  • accommodation:
A

change in the lens´s shape that occurs when ciliary muscles at the front of the eye tighten and increase the curvature of the lens so that it thickens

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8
Q
  • presbyopia:
A

gradual decrease in accommodate ability due to hardening of the lens with age and weaker ciliary muscles

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9
Q

Myopia or nearsightedness -

A

Inability to see distant objects clearly

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10
Q

The retina

A

is the third and inner coat of the eye which is a light-sensitive layer of tissue. The optics of the eye create an image of the visual world on the retina (through the cornea and lens),

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11
Q

Refractive myopia

A

Cause 1 for myopia: cornea or lens bends too much light

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12
Q

Axial myopia

A

Cause 2 of myopia: the eyeball is too long

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13
Q

Hyperopia or farsightedness -

A

inability to see nearby objects clearly

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14
Q

Visual pigment

A

A light-absorbing compound in the photoreceptor cells of the retina that converts light energy into a nerve impulse that is passed from the receptor cells to the optic nerve.

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15
Q
  • Transduction
A

is the transformation of one form of energy into another form of energy – which occurs in the rods and cons

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16
Q

A photon

A

is an elementary particle, the quantum of all forms of electromagnetic radiation, including light

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17
Q

Maculardegeneration

Retinitis pigmentosa

A

Maculardegeneration

  • Fovea and small surrounding area are destroyed
  • Creates a “blind spot” on retina
  • Most common in older individuals

Retinitis pigmentosa

  • Genetic disease
  • Rods are destroyed first
  • Foveal cones can also be attacked
  • Severe cases result in complete blindness
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18
Q
  • Spectral sensitivity curves:
A

the relationship between wavelength and sensitivity

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19
Q
  • absorption spectrum:
A

a pigment´s plot of the amount of light absorbed vs. the wavelength of the light

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20
Q

Visual acutity

A

refers to be able to see things in details

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21
Q

convergence

A

occurs when a number of neutrons synapse onto a single neuron

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22
Q

Lateral inhibition:

A

inhibition that is transmitted across the retina. In the retina, lateral inhibition is transmitted by the horizontal and amacrine cells

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23
Q

the perception of lightness

A
  • The perception of shades raging from white to grey black
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24
Q

The Herman Grid: phenomena

A

Seeing spots at Intersections

People see an illusion of gray imagines in intersections (kryss) of white areas

explained with Lateral Inhibition

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25
Q

Mach bands

A

Seeing Borders More Sharply

Illusory light and dark bands near a light-dark boarder

Explained with lateral inhibition

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26
Q

Simultaneous contrast

A

Phenomena because of lateral inhibition

when our perception of the brightness or color of one area is affected by the presence of an adjacent or surrounding area

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27
Q
  • Receptive field:
A

area of receptors that affects firing rate of a given neuron in the circuit // the region of the retina that must receive illumination in order to obtain a response in any given fiber (HARTLINE)

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28
Q

center-surround organization –

A

the area in the “center” of the receptive field responds differently to light than the area in the “surround” of the receptive field

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29
Q

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

A
  • LNG receives 90 % of the optic nerve fibers (remaining 10 to superior colliculus) and it is a complex structure containing millions of neurons.
  • The purpose of LNG is to regulate neural info as it flows from the retina to the cortex
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30
Q

Sensory code:

A

representation of perceived objects through neural firing

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31
Q

Distributed coding

A
  • pattern of firing across many neurons codes specific objects
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32
Q

Specifity coding

A
  • specific neurons responding to specific stimuli
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33
Q

Sparse coding

A
  • only a relatively small number of neurons are necessary

- this theory can be viewed as a midpoint between specify and distributed coding

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34
Q

Spatial organization

A

referes to the way stimuli at specific locations in the environment are represented by activity at specific locations in the nervous system

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35
Q

Retinotopic map

A

Shows that locations on the cortex corresponds to locations on the retina

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36
Q

– Cortical magnification

A

– a small area of the fovea is represented by a large area on the visual cortex

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37
Q

location columns:

A

perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, so that all of the neurons within a location column have their receptive fields at the same location as on the retina

38
Q

Inverse projection problem:

A

an image on the retina can be caused by infinite number of objects, and this problem involves starting with the retinal image and extending rays out from the eye..

39
Q

Viewpoint invariance

A

– important concept!!) the ability to recognize an object regardless of the viewpoint

40
Q

Perceptual organization

A

process by which elements in the environment become perceptually grouped to create our perception of objects

41
Q

Segregation

A

: separating one area or object from another

42
Q

Grouping

A

visual events are “put together” into units or objects

43
Q
  • Sence:
A

a view of a real-world environment that contains

  1. Background elements
  2. Multiple objects that are organized in a meaningful way relative to each other and the background
44
Q

Regularities in the environment

A
  • Characteristics of the environment such as it, which occurs frequently
45
Q

Regularities in the environment

A
  • Characteristics of the environment such as it, which occurs frequently
46
Q

• Oblique effect

A

– people perceive horizontals and vertical more easily than other orientations

47
Q

• Uniform connectedness

A

– objects are defined by areas of the same color

48
Q
  • semantic regularities:
A

the characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes

49
Q
  • Binocular rivalry:
A

the observer perceives either the left-eye image or the right-eye image, but not at the same time

50
Q

Attention

A
  • The process of focusing on specific objects while ignoring others
51
Q

Overt attention

A

looking directly at the attended object,

52
Q

Covert attention

A

covert attention: attention without looking (basketball player who looks right but then suddenly throws a dead-on pass to a team mate he was covertly attending to off to the left)

53
Q

Stimulus salience

A

referes to physical properties such as color, contrast, movement, and orientation that makes that particular object or location conspicuous. Areas of stimuli that attract attention due to their properties

54
Q

spatial attention

A

attention to specific locations

55
Q

same-object-advantage

A

Enhancement effect for non-target within the target rectangle – same-object advantage

56
Q

What happens when we attend?

A

Attention speeds responding to locations and objects, influence appearance, influence physiological responding (attention to objects and locations increase the response in specific areas in the brain, attention can shift the location of a neurone´s receptive field)

57
Q

• Perceptual capacity:

A

a person has a certain capacity that can be used for carrying out perceptual tasks

58
Q

• Perceptual load:

A

the amount of a person´s perceptual capacity needed to carry out a particular perceptual task

59
Q
  • Illusory conjunctions:
A

features that should be associated with an object become incorrectly associated with each another

60
Q
  • Focused attention stage:
A

features are bound into a coherent perception

61
Q
  • pre-attentive stage:
A

objects are analyzed into separate features they exists independently of each other

62
Q

optic flow

A

provides us with info about how rapidly we are moving and where we are headed.

63
Q

gradient flow

A
  1. Optic flow is more rapid near the moving observer (indicated by long arrows). The different speed of flow – fast near the observer and slower farther away, is called the gradient flow
64
Q

illusory motion

A
  • Illusory motion perception of motion when there actually is none (apparent, induced, motion affereffects)
65
Q

Apparent movement

A
  • stationary stimuli are presented in slightly different locations
66
Q

• Induced motion:

A

motion of one object (usually a large one) causes a nearby stationary object (usually smaller) to appear to move. (small moon, big clouds move past, looks like moon is moving)

67
Q

motion afferent

A

• Motion aftereffect
- Observer looks at movement of object for 30 to 60 seconds.

  • Then observer looks at a stationary object.
  • Movement appears to occur in the opposite direction from the original movement.
  • The waterfall illusion is an example of this. (look at waterfall, then look away, its in the side sight, looks like rocks and grass also moves)
68
Q
  • Reflectance curves:
A

plots of percentage of light reflected for specific wavelengths

69
Q
  • Chromatic colors or hues:
A

objects that preferentially reflect some wavelengths called reflectance (some wavelength reflected more than others – determine the objects color)

70
Q
  • Achromatic colors:
A

contain no hues (white, black, and gray tones) (light is reflected equally across the spectrum)

71
Q

¥ Monochromat

A

person who needs only one wavelength to match any color

72
Q

¥ Dichromat

A

person who needs only two wavelengths to match any color

73
Q

¥ Anomalous trichromat

A

needs three wavelengths in different proportions than normal trichromat

74
Q

¥ Unilateral dichromat

A

trichromatic vision in one eye and dichromatic in other

75
Q
  • Monocular cues

Pictorial cues-

A

Pictorial cues- sources of depth information come from 2-D images, such as pictures
• Occlusion: when one object partially covers another
• Relative height:– objects below the horizon that are higher in the field of vision are more distant objects above the horizon lower in the visual field are more distant
• Relative size: when objects are equal size, the closer one will take up more of your visual field
• Perspective convergence: parallel lines appear to come together in the distance
• Familiar size: distance info based on our knowledge of object size
* Atmospheric perspective: distance object are fuzzy and have blue tint
• Texture gradient: equally spaced elements are more closely packed as distance increases
• Shadows: indicate where objects are located (enhance 3-D of objects)

76
Q
  • Oculomotor cues
A

are based on sensing the position of the eyes and muscle tension. They are created by convergence and accommodation.

77
Q
  • cue approach to depth perception
A

How do we get from the flat, two-dimensional image on the retina to the three-dimensional perception of the scene. Cue approach to depth perception tries to explain this.
- This approach focuses on information in the retinal image that is correlated with depth in the scene

78
Q
  • Auditory space:
A

surrounds an observer and exists wherever there is sound

79
Q
  • Binaural cues:
A

location cues based on the comparison of the signals received by the left and right ears

80
Q
  • Interaural time difference (ITD):
A

difference between the times sounds reach the two ears

81
Q
  • Interaural level difference (ILD):
A

difference in sound pressure level reaching the two ear

82
Q
  • Monaural cue
A

– uses info from one ear
- The primary monaural cue for localization is called a spectral cue, because the info for localization is contained in differences in the distribution (or spectrum) of frequencies that reach each ear from different locations. These differences are caused by the fact that before the sound stimulus enters the auditory canal, it is reflected from the head and within the various folds of the pinnae

83
Q

precedence effect:

A

we perceive the sound as coming from the source that reaches our ear first

84
Q

tactile acuity

A

the ability to detect details on the skin

85
Q

Frequency

A

the number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat

86
Q

Amplitude

A

the size of the pressure change

difference in pressure between high and low peaks of wave

87
Q

Decibel

A
  • Perception of amplitude is loudness

* Decibel (dB) us used as the measure of loudness

88
Q

Hertz

A
  • Frequency – the number of cycles within a given time period
    • Measured in Hertz (Hz) – 1 Hz is one cycle per second
89
Q
  • Loudness
A

is the perceptual quality most closely related to the level or amplitude of an auditory stimuli

90
Q
  • Pitch
A

– the perceptual quality we describe as high and low

91
Q
  • Timbre
A

– all other perceptual aspects of a sound besides loudness, pitch, and duration

Cognitive 1 (1 decks)

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