Definitions 📚 Flashcards
Definitions for psych stats
The simplest type of reversal design that involves an initial baseline (A), manipulation (B), and a return to baseline (A)
ABA Reversal Design
A simple comparison of the baseline (A) and the manipulation (B) phases
AB Design
See true zero
Absolute zero
The relationship between scores on two different forms of a scale
Alternate Forms Reliability
A prediction of what the researcher expects to find in a study.
- Often called an experimental hypothesis in experimental research and stated in terms of differences between groups
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
No one other than the participant can link the participant to his or her responses
Anonymity
Analysis of existing data or records
Archival Research
Graph used to display nominal or ordinal data in which the frequency of scores is depicted on the Y axis and the categories for nominal data or ranks for ordinal data are depicted on the X axis
Non adjacent bars represent the frequency of each category or rank
Bar Graph
In a single N design, repeated assessment of the dependent variable in the absence of any manipulation
Baseline (Phase A)
Variability in scores created by the different levels of the IV; researchers attempt to maximize this variability
Between Groups (Treatment) Variance
A non normal distribution that has two peaks
Bimodal Distribution
An experiment in which the participants know that they have been exposed to one particular IV condition but they do not know which one
Blind Experiment
Observers are not informed of the hypothesis in order to reduce observer bias
Blind Observer
A confound that occurs when the effect of one condition of the treatment continues (or carries over) into the next condition
Carryover Effect
Detailed investigation of a single individual, group, organization or event
Case Study
Relationship between cause and effect, in that one variable is shown to have caused the observed change in another variable
Causation (or causality)
Restricting the upper limit of a measure so that higher levels of a measure are not assessed accurately
Ceiling Effect
A comparison of one level of a factor across a level of another factor
Cell
The mean of each cell comparing one level of a factor across a level of another factor
Cell Means
A single score that summarizes the center of the distribution
Central Tendency
A list of qualities or behaviors that are checked if present
Checklist
A nonparametric test used with one nominal variable having two or more categories; tests whether the observed frequencies of the categories reflect the exposed population frequencies
Chi Square Goodness Of Fit
A nonparametric test used with two nominal variables having two or more categories; tests whether the frequency distributions of two variables are independent
Chi Square Test For Independence
Nonparametric tests used with nominal data that compare expected versus observed frequencies
Chi Square Tests (X2)
Item that provides a limited number of choices from which respondents must select
Closed Ended Response Format
Procedure in which clusters of individuals are assigned to one level of the IV so that each cluster has an equal chance of experiencing any of the IV levels
Cluster Random Assignment
A type of probability sampling in which groups, or clusters, are randomly selected instead of individuals
Cluster Sampling
A nonparametric statistic used to analyze nominal data from a study that includes three or more dependent groups
Cochran Q Test
The process of categorizing information
Coding
Proportion of variability accounted for by knowing the relationship (correlation) between two variables
Coeffeceint Of Determination (r2)
A measure of effect size; describes the magnitude of the effect of our IV (or predictor) on the DV (or outcome) in standard deviation units
Cohen’s D
Critique or comments about a published research article
Commentaries
Randomly assigning participants to all the possible sequences of conditions in an experiment
Complete Counterbalancing
Positive correlation between scale scores and a current behavior that is related to the construct assessed by the scale
Concurrent Validity
The values of the IV
Conditions (or Levels or Groups)
Someone is working with the researcher but pretends to be a participant or bystander
Confederate
An estimation of the range of values within which the scores will fall (Margin of error)
Confidence Interval
A measure of how likely the scores will fall within a stated confidence interval
Confidence Level
A participant’s responses are kept private although the researcher may be able to link the participant with his or her responses
Confidentiality
A variable that varies systematically with the variables of interest in a study and is a potential alternative explanation for causality
Confound (or Confounding Variable)
A concept that cannot be directly observed or measured
Construct
Whether a measure mirrors the characteristic of a hypothetical construct; can be assessed in many ways
Construct Validity
Inclusion of all aspects of a construct by items on a scale of measure
Content Validity
Used to determine the effect size for a contingency table larger than 2 x 2 and with an equal number of rows and columns (3 x 3, 4 x 4, ECT)
Contingency Coeffeceint Squared (C2)
A matrix that presents frequencies representing the combined levels of two variables
Contingency Table
The researcher sets up the situation and observes how participants or subjects respond
Contrived Observation
The group that receives the zero level of the IV
Control Group
A type of nonprobability sample made up of those volunteers or others who are readily available and willing to participate
Convenience Sampling
Positive relationship between two scales measuring the same or similar constructs
Convergent Validity
A relationship between variables
Correlation
See correlational research
Correlational Design
A design with two or more predictors that are not manipulated in the study
Correlational Factorial Design
Research design in which the relationship among two or more variables is examined, but causality cannot be determined
Correlational Research (or Correlational Design)
A procedure to eliminate order effects in a repeated measures experiment; participants are randomly assigned to different sequences of the conditions in an experiment
Counterbalancing
Observations are made without the participant’s awareness
Covert Observation
The effect size statistic used when a contingency table is larger than a 2 x 2 and the number of rows and columns are different numbers (3 x 4, 4 x 2, ECT)
Cramer’s V Squared (V2)
The percentage of a sampling distribution that the researcher selects
Criterion Level (P)
Positive correlation between scale scores and a behavioral mesure
Criterion Validity
The value of a statistic that defines the extreme 5% of the distribution for a one tailed hypothesis or the extreme 2.5% of the distribution for a two tailed test
Critical Value
Test used to assess the internal consistency of a scale by computing the intercorrelations among responses to scale items; values of .70 or higher are interpreted as acceptable internal consistency
Cronbach’s Alpha (X)
The proportion of a score that falls within a specified interval
Cumulative Percentage
Clearing up any misconceptions that the participant might have and addressing any negative effects of the study
Debriefing
Determined by the sample size; number of scores free to vary in a sample
Degrees of Freedom (Df)
Characteristics of the study that lead a participant to guess at the study’s hypothesis and change their behaviors accordingly
Demand Characteristics
A design where the participants in different conditions are related or are the same people
Dependent Groups Design
Experiment in which the groups are related, in that participants were matched prior to exposure to the IV or in that participants experience all levels of the IV
Dependent Groups Experiment
A factorial design in which all the levels of the factors are related via matching or repeated measures
Dependent Groups Factorial Design
See within subjects ANOVA
Dependent Groups One Way ANOVA
The statistical test used to analyze results from a dependent two groups design
Dependent Samples T Test
Or Paired Samples T Test/Within Subjects T Test
The variable that is measured in an experiment and is expected to vary or change based on the IV manipulation
Dependent Variable (DV)
Research design in which the primary goal is to describe the variables, but not examine relationships among variables
Descriptive Research
A type of quantitative (numerical) analysis used to summarize the characteristics of a sample
Descriptive Statistics
A nominal variable that has two levels or groups
Dichotomous Variable
The treatment administered to one group is shared with another group through cross group interactions
Diffusion Of Treatment
Negative or no relationship between two scales measuring different constructs
Divergent Validity
An experiment in which neither the participants nor the researcher interacting with the participants know which participants have been assigned to each condition
Double Blind Experiment
How long a behavior lasts
Duration
A type of external validity that assesses the degree to which a study’s findings generalize to real world settings
Ecological Validity
Strength or magnitude of the effect of a variable, or the strength of the relationship between two variables
Effect Size
Investigation of single cases that comprise a group or organization in order to understand that group or organization as a whole
Embedded Case Study
Systematic changes to the physical or social environment
Environmental Manipulations
Systematic changes to the physical or social environment
Environmental Manipulations
The distance between numbers on a scale is equal
Equal Intervals
See within groups variance
Error Variance
Estimated standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means that is used to calculate the t test
Estimated Standard Error Of The Means (SDx)
The percentage of variability in a measured variable which is accounted for by the grouping variable
- It is used as a measure of effect size in studies analyzed with an ANOVA
Eta Squared (n2)
The frequency or count we expect in a category according to the null hypothesis
Expected Frequency (E)
See experimental research
Experiment
A design with two or more IVs that are manipulated and in which participants are randomly assigned to IV levels
Experimental Factorial Design
The group that receives a certain amount or level of the IV
Experimental Group
An alternative hypothesis used in experiments and stated in terms of differences between groups
Experimental Hypothesis (Ha)
Research design that attempts to determine a causal relationship by randomly assigning participants or subjects to groups, manipulating one variable (the IV) and measuring the effect of that manipulation on another variable (the DV)
Experimental Research (or Experimental Design or Experiment)
Phenomenon in which a researcher unintentionally treats the groups differently so that results support the hypothesis
Experimenter Expectancy Effects (or Rosenthal Effect)
The degree to which we can say that the results of a study are accurate for different types of people in different settings assessed with different procedures
External Validity
Whether a particular measure seems to be appropriate as a way to assess a construct
Face Validity
A predictor variable in a correlational design or an IV in an experiment or quasi experiment
Factor
A design used to examine how two or more variables (factors) predict or explain an outcome
Factorial Design
A shorthand for expressing how many factors, levels, and cells are present in a factorial design
Factorial Notation
A confound that occurs when changes in the DV occur because of participants becoming tired
Fatigue Effect
A commonly used post hoc test that compares the smallest amount that group means can differ in order to be significant
Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) Test
Restricting the lower limit of a measure so that lower scores are not assessed accurately
Floor Effect
Response format in which there is no neutral or middle option
Forced Choice Response Format
A count of how many times a score appears in the sample
Frequency (f)
Graph used to display interval or ratio data in which the frequency of scores is depicted on the Y axis and the scores are on depicted on the X axis
- Points represent the frequency of each score
- The points are connected with straight lines that begin and end on the X axis
Frequency Polygon
A nonparametric test used to analyze ordinal or ranked data from a study with one variable with three or more dependent groups
Friedman Chi Squared (Friedman X2)
The mean of the DV or outcome of the entire sample
Grand Mean
A method to build theory from data
Grounded Theory
Design in which a researcher compares two or more groups of participants who are exposed to different levels of a variable of interest
Group Design
The mean of each level or group that ignores the other factor
Group Means
Phenomenon in which participants change their behavior simply because they are in a study and have the attention of researchers
Hawthorne Effect
Graph used to display interval or ratio data in which the frequency of scores is depicted on the Y axis and the interval ratings or ratio scores are depicted on the X axis
- Adjacent bars represent the frequency of each rating or score
Histogram
The degree to which the members of a sample have similar characteristics
Homogeneity of the Sample
Assumption that the variance of populations is the same; group standard deviations serve as estimates of the population variance
Homogeneity of Variance
A design with at least one experimental IV and at least one quasi IV or predictor
Hybrid Factorial Design
The process of determining the probability of obtaining a particular result or set of results
Hypothesis Testing
Each number has a unique meaning
Identity
Experiment in which each participant experiences only one level of the IV
Independent Groups Experiment (or Between Subjects Experiment)
A factorial design in which all the factors have independent levels/groups
Independent Groups Factorial Design
The inferential statistic used to test differences between means in a study with two independent groups
Independent Samples T Test
The variable that is manipulated in an experiment
Independent Variable (IV)
Statistical analysis of data gathered from a sample to draw conclusions about a population from which the sample is drawn
Inferential Statistics
An ethical standard by which potential participants are informed of the topic, procedure, risks, and benefits of participation prior to consenting to participate
Informed Consent
An established group that evaluates research proposals to ensure that ethical standards are being followed in research that involves human participants
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Systematic changes to instructions, educational information, or feedback
Instructional Manipulations
How one variable predicts or affects the outcome based on the levels of another variable
Interaction Effect
The numerator of the variance created by the differences among different participants in the same condition in a dependent design; considered an interaction between condition and participants
Interaction Sums of Squares (SSAxs)
The consistency of participant responses to all the items on a scale
Internal Consistency
The degree to which we can say that we found an accurate relationship among variables, in that changes in one variable (the DV) are caused by changes in another variable (the IV)
- Relevant only to studies examining causation
Interval Validity
Consistency of observations or ratings of a behavior made by two different people
Interrater Reliability
A scale of measurement that has both order and equal intervals between values on the scale
Interval Scale
The interviewer may provide verbal or nonverbal cues that impact how the participant responds
Interviewer bias
The way the researcher creates the conditions of the IV
IV Manipulation
A nonparametric test used to analyze ordinal data from a study with one variable with at least three levels
Kruskal - Wallis H Test
The degree of the peak of a normal distribution
Kurtosis
The time between stopping one task and beginning a new task
Latency
A type of partial counterbalancing where each condition appears once in each sequence; participants are then randomly assigned to the different sequences
Latin Square Counterbalancing
A normal distribution with most of the scores in the middle and a sharp peak
Leptokurtic Curve
A statistical test that examines whether the variability within different samples is similar
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances
A commonly used type of interval scale response in which items are rated on a range of numbers (usually between five and seven response options) that are assumed to have equal intervals
Likert Type Scale
Process of describing a correlation with the line that best fits the data points
Linear Regression
A relationship between two variables, defined by their moving in a single direction together
Linear Relationship
The straight line that best fits a correlation and consists of each x value in the relationship and its predicted Y value
Line of Best Fit
Review of past research without a report of original research
Literature Review
How one variable predicts or affects the outcome
Main Effect
In a single N design, repeated assessment of the dependent variable during the implementation of a manipulation (eg, treatment)
Manipulation (Phase B)
The process of verifying that the participants attended to the manipulation
Manipulation Check
A nonparametric test used to analyze ordinal data from two independent groups when n < 20/group
Mann - Whitney U Test
A design where participants in each group are matched on a characteristic relevant to the variable that is being measured
- In an experimental design, a member of each matched pair is randomly to each IV condition
Matched Pairs Design
Process in which participants are put into matched sets and then each member of the set is assigned to one IV level so that all in the set have an equal chance of experiencing any of the levels
Matched Random Assignment
A nonprobability sampling strategy in which the researcher seeks out the full range of extremes in the population
Maximum Variation Sampling
A nonparametric statistic used to analyze nominal data from a study using two dependent (matched or repeated measures) groups
McNemar Test
The arithmetic average
Mean (M)
The average difference between the scores of matched pairs or the scores for the same participants across two conditions; computed by subtracting one score of a matched or repeated pair from the other score
Mean Difference (MD)
The average deviation of group means from the total mean of a sample
- Used in computing an ANOVA
Mean Square Between Groups (MSB)
The average deviation within all groups or levels of a study
- Used in computing an ANOVA
Mean Square Within Groups (MSW)
Consistency of a measure
Measurement Reliability
Measurement is accurate in that it measures what it purports to measure
Measurement Validity
The score that cuts a distribution in half
Median (Mdn)
A normal distribution with a moderate or middle peak
Mesokurtic Curve
A type of review in which the statistical results of past research are synthesized but no original data were connected or analyzed
Meta Analysis
A factorial design with at least one factor with independent levels and at least one factor with dependent levels
Mixed Design
The most frequent score in a distribution
Mode
In an interaction effect, the factor that changes the strength or direction of the relationship between a predictor and the outcome (or one IV and the DV in an experiment)
Moderator
Population mean
Mu (M)
The manipulation is introduced at different times across two or more behaviors
Multiple Baseline Across Behaviors
The manipulation is introduced at different times across two or more persons
Multiple Baseline Across Persons
The manipulation is introduced at different times across two or more settings
Multiple Baseline Across Settings
The manipulation is introduced at different times across two or more persons, settings, or behaviors
Multiple Baseline Design
A study examining the effect of a manipulated IV or the relationship of a variable that has three or more levels on a DV
- The participants in each level of the IV are unrelated
Multiple Independent Groups Design
A single N design in which the researcher introduces two or more manipulations over the course of the study
Multiple Manipulation Design
A statistical technique that computes both the individual and combined contribution of two or more variables to the prediction of another variable
Multiple Regression (R)
A detailed account of behaviors or responses
Narrative
Observations that occur in natural environments or situations and do not invade interference by anyone involved in the research
Naturalistic Observations
A relationship where scores on two variables move in opposite directions (one increases while the other decreases)
Negative Correlation
One or a few negative scores skew the distribution in the negative direction, but most of the scores cluster on the positive end of the scale
Negative Skew
A scale of measurement where numbers represent categories and have no numerical value
Nominal Scale
Statistics used to analyze nominal and ordinal (ranked) data or used when the assumptions of parametric statistics are violated
Nonparametric Statsitics
The researcher or observer is not directly involved in the situation
Nonparticipant Observation
Process of obtaining a study sample without without using random selection
Nonprobability Sampling (or Nonrandom Sampling)
The extent to which those who were selected and participated in the study differ from those who were selected but did not participate
Nonresponse Bias
Symmetrical distribution in which scores cluster around the middle and then taper off at the ends
Normal Distribution
A prediction of no difference between groups; the hypothesis the researcher expects to reject
Null Hypothesis (H0)
The process of categorizing and numbering information for quantitative analyses
Numerical Coding
A measure that is rated by observers and sometimes made without the awareness of the person performing the behavior
Observational Measure
The frequency or count we obtain in a particular category
Observed Frequency (o)
The lowest and highest scores on a measure that are obtained in the sample
Observed Minimum and Maximum Scores
The observers pay closer attention to behaviors that support their expectations or interpret behaviors in ways that support their expectations or lose their focus on the target behavior
Observer Bias
Nonexperimental design in which all participants are tested prior to exposure to a variable of interest and again after exposure
One Group Pretest - Posttest Design
An inferential statistic that compares a sample mean to a known population mean
One Sample T Test
A hypothesis stating the direction (higher or lower) in which a sample statistic will differ from the population or another group
One Tailed Hypothesis
The inferential statistical test used to analyze data from a multiple groups design
One Way Analysis of Variance (One Way ANOVA)
Item on a scale that required the respondents to generate their own answers
Open - Ended Response Format
The explicit explanation of a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated
Operational Definition
Numbers on a scale are ordered in sequence
Order
A confound that occurs when the order of each treatment condition cannot be separated from the condition
Order Effect
A scale of measurement with numbers that have order so that each number is greater or less than other numbers but the interval between the numbers is not equal
- Also called rankings
Ordinal Scale
The variable that is predicted, and a term used instead of DV in a correlational design
Outcome
Responses or observations that deviate greatly from the rest of the data
Outliers
No attempts are made to hide the observation
Overt Observation
See dependent samples t test
Paired Samples T Test
Statistics from a population
Parameters
Statistics used to analyze interval and ratio data and that assume a normal distribution and homogeneity or variance between groups
Parametric Statistics
Randomly assigning participants to different sequences of conditions so that each condition is represented in each order an equal number of times but not all sequences are represented
Partial Counterbalancing
The effect size for a dependent multiple group design that removes the variability unique to individual participants from the error term
Partial Eta Squared (n2 Partial)
The researcher or observer becomes actively involved in the situation
Participant Observation
Statistic used to describe a linear relationship between two interval/ratio measures
- Describes the direction (positive or negative) and strength (between +1 - 1.0) of the relationship
Pearson’s r (or Pearson’s Product - Moment Correlation Coeffecient)
Process in which scholarly works are reviewed by other experts in the field
Peer Review
The proportion of a score within the sample
Percentage
The percentage of the distribution that scored below a specific score
Percentile
The statistic used to assess the effect size when a 2x2 test for independence is significant
- It is interpreted as the percentage of variability accounted for in the frequency of one variable by knowing its relationship with a second variable
Phi Squared (02)
Systematic changes to participants’ or subjects’ physical functioning
Physiological Manipulations
A preliminary study with a small sample to test measures and procedures
Pilot Study
A treatment or substance that in and of itself has no therapeutic effect, such as a sugar pill
Placebo
A normal distribution that is relatively spread out and flat
Platykurtic Curve
Describes the relationship between a dichotomous variable and an interval/ratio variable; interpreted similarly to a pearson correlation coeffecient
Point - Biserial Correlation Coeffecient (rpb)
Estimate of the total variance for a sample of scores computed by combining and weighing by their respective n the variances of the two groups making up the sample
Pooled Variance
Works designed to entertain or educate and that were written for those who do not necessarily have any expertise in the topic area
Popular Works
The group that a researcher is interested in examining defined by specific characteristic such as residency, occupation, gender or age
Population
A relationship where scores on two variables move in the same direction (both either increase or decrease)
Positive Correlation
One or a few positive scores skew the distribution in the positive direction, but most of the scores cluster on the negative end of the scale
Positive Skew
The lowest and highest scores possible for the measurement instrument
Possible Minimum and Maximum Scores
Additional analysis when you find statistically significant results when comparing three or more groups
- Sometimes also performed when you find a statistically significant interaction
Post Hoc Test
The ability to reject the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, false
Power
The usefulness or everyday impact of results
Practical Significance
A confound that occurs when participants’ scores change due to repeating a task rather than because of the level of the IV
Practice Effect
Positive relationship between scale scores and a future behavior that is related to the construct assessed by the scale
Predictive Validity
The variable that is used to predict the value of another variable, and a term used instead of IV in a correlational design
Predictor Variable
Process of identifying those who have characteristics that the researcher wants to include or exclude in the study
Prescreening
How common or widespread a behavior attitude, characteristic, or within a specific time period
Prevalence
Report of the method and results or an original research study (ie, primary research source) that is published in an academic journal
Primary Research Article (or Empirical Journal Article)
The authors report the results of an original research study that they conducted
Primary Research Source
Process of obtaining a study sample using random selection
Probability Sampling (or Random Sampling)
Nonnumerical Assessment
Qualitative Measure
Numerical measure
Quantitative measure
A design with two or more quasi IVs, meaning that the IVs are manipulated but participants are not randomly assigned to IV conditions
Quasi - Experimental Factorial Design
Research design that includes a key characteristic of an experiment, namely, manipulation of a variable
- However, it does not have all the requirements for an experiment in that there is no random assignment to the levels of the manipulated variable
- Because there is no random assignment, a quasi experiment cannot demonstrate causation
Quasi Experimental Research (Quasi Experimental Design) (Quasi Experiment)
A document, presented in hard copy or on the computer, consisting of items that assess one or more constructs
Questionnaire
A type of nonprobability sampling that results in the sample representing key subpopulations based on characteristics such as age, gender and ethnicity
Quota Sampling
Process of assigning participants to IV conditions (or order of conditions) that is based on chance
Random Assignment
In experiments where the participants experience all levels of the IV, the participants all have an equal chance of experiencing the IV levels in a certain order
Random Assignment to Order of Conditions
Randomly assigning each participant to one of the possible sequences of conditions without concern about order or sequence
- Used when you have a larger number of sequences than participants
Randomized Partial Counterbalancing
A process of selecting a sample in which all members of a population or a subpopulation have an equal chance of being selected
Random Selection
A selected member of the population is removed from the pool of possible participants so that any member may be selected into the sample only once
Random Selection Without Replacement
A selected member of the population is returned to the pool of possible participants so that any member may be selected into the sample more than once
Random Selection with Replacement
The distance between the observed maximum and minimum scores
Range
A nonparametric test used to analyze ordinal data from two independent groups when at least one of the groups has more than twenty
Rank Sums Test
A numerical rating of a particular quality
Rating Scale
A scale of measurement where values measure quantity and have order, equal intervals, and a true zero
Ratio Scale
How long it takes a participant to respond to a stimulus
Reaction Time
Area of sampling distribution generally defined by the mean +/-2 SD or 95% of the distribution; results falling in this region imply that our sample belongs to the sampling distribution defined by the H0 and result in the researcher retaining the H0
Region of Acceptance
The extreme 5% (generally) of a sampling distribution; results falling in this area imply that our sample does not belong to the sampling distribution defined by the H0 and result in the researcher rejecting the H0 and accepting the Ha
Region of Rejection
Equation that describes the relationship between two variables and allows us to predict Y from X
Regression Equation
Consistency of findings or measures
Reliability
How consistent the results are across similar studies
Reliability of a Study
See within subjects ANOVA
Repeated Measures ANOVA
A design where participants experience every condition in a study
- In an experiment, they are also randomly assigned to the order of conditions
Repeated Measures Design (or Within Subjects Design)
Conducting the same study with new participants (literal replication) or conducting a study examining the same patterns or relationships but with different methods (conceptual replication)
Replication
The type of response, either participant generated or choice from among listed options, required by items on a questionnaire
Response Format
The manipulation is removed and the individual returns to a baseline phase
Reversal
A subset of the population from which data are collected
Sample
The process by which a sample is selected
Sampling
When some members of a population are overrepresented in the sample
Sampling Bias
A distribution of some statistic obtained from multiple samples of the same size drawn from the same population
Sampling Distribution
The score that is computed from items assessing a particular construct, most commonly by a sum or average of the numbers representing responses to individual items in the document
Scale Score
A graph of the data points created by participant scores on two measures; each data point represents a score on the X variable and a score on the Y variable
Scatterplot (or Scattergram)
Systematic changes to a scenario
Scenario Manipulations
Works designed to advance knowledge in a field, written by someone with expertise in that field, that cite and build upon other scholarly sources
Scholarly Works
Research data that were collected by one researcher or group but analyzed by a different researcher or group
Secondary Data
The authors review research but do not report results of an original study
Secondary Research Source
There is a set of core questions or topics that the interviewer will follow, but may prompt for more information, ask follow up questions, or clarify questions at the interviewer deems necessary
Semi Structured Interviews
The ability of a measurement instrument to detect differences
Sensitivity
Population standard deviation
Sigma
A study investigating the effect of a manipulated IV with two conditions on a DV
- The IV is nominal scale and the DV is interval or ratio
Simple Experiment
Procedure in which each participant is assigned to one level of the IV so that every participant has an equal chance of experiencing any of the IV levels
Simple Random Assignment
A type of probability sampling in which every single member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample
Simple Random Sampling
Quantitative investigation of a cause and effect relationship within a single case
Single N Design
A non normal distribution that is asymmetrical, with scores clustering on one side of the distribution and a long tail on the other side
Skewed Distribution
A number that indicates the degree of skewness in a distribution
Skewness Statistic (G1)
Describes the role of change in Y with each unit of change in X (or the incline of the line of best fit), designated by “b” in the regression equation
Slope
A series of single N designs
Small N Designs
A nonprobability sampling strategy in which participants recruit others into the sample
Snowball Sampling
Participants may respond based on how they want to be perceived or what is socially acceptable
Social Desirability Bias
A commonly used nonparametric statistic that analyzes the relationship or correlation between two ordinal variables
Spearman’s Rho (rs)
In a dependent design, the assumption that the variances of the differences between all the combinations of pairs of groups are equal
Sphericity
Correlations between the responses to half the items on a scale to the other half (usually even numbered items correlated with odd numbered items)
- Values of .70 or higher are considered to denote acceptable reliability
Split Half Reliability
A measure of the effect size for the independent samples t test, providing the percentage of variance in the outcome (or DV) accounted for by the predictor (or IV)
Squared Point Biseral Correlation (rpb2)
A baseline that displays no trend (or slope) and little variability and therefore allows for prediction of future behavior
Stable Baseline
A single number that summarizes the degree to which scores differ from the mean
Standard Deviation (SD)
The average variability in a sampling distribution of differences between means
Standard Error of the Difference Between the Means (SD x-x)
Standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means
Standard Error of the Means (Ox)
Average difference between the predicted Y values for each X from the actual Y values
(SY1)
Standard deviation of the differences for a sampling distribution of mean differences; estimated from the standard deviation of difference scores in a dependent samples study
Standard Error of the Mean Differences (SDd)
When the results of a study fall in the extreme 5% (or 1% if you use a more stringent criterion) of the sampling distribution, suggesting that the obtained findings are not due to chance alone and do not belong to the sampling distribution defined by the H0
Statistical Significance
A process to reduce the likelihood that the results were obtained by chance alone
Statistical Significance Testing
Procedure in which the researcher identifies strata of participants based on key characteristics, then uses random assignment so that each member of each stratum has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the IV conditions
Stratified Random Assignment
A type of probability sampling that results in the sample representing key subpopulations based on characteristics such as age, gender, and ethnicity
Stratified Random Sampling
All questions, follow up questions, and responses by the interviewer are determined beforehand to ensure that all the participants have a very similar experience
Structured Interviews
A portion of subgroup of the population
Subpopulation
The sum of the squared deviations of treatment group means from the mean for the entire sample
Sum of Squares Between Groups (SSB)
The numerator of the variance created by adding the squared differences in the scores of individual participants across different conditions in a dependent design
Sum of Squares Subjects (SSs)
The sum of the squared deviations of each participant from the mean of their group
Sum of Squares Within Groups (SSw)
Interviews or questionnaires in which participants report on their attitudes and behaviors
Survey Research
How long it takes to complete a task
Task Completion Time
An educated prediction that can be disproven
Testable Hypothesis
A measure of the stability of scores on a scale over time
Test Retest Reliability
Confounds that must be controlled so that a cause - effect relationship can be demonstrated; Campbell and Stanley (1963) identified the threats of…
A. History B. Maturation C. Testing D. Instrumentation E. Statistical Regression F. Selection G. Morality H. Selection Interactions
Threats to Internal Validity
See between groups variance
Treatment Variance
Pattern of change in prevalence over time
Trend
The score of zero on a scale is a fixed point
True Zero (or Absolute Zero)
A popular post hoc test that is more conservative than most tests; it must be used with equal n and computes the least significant difference that is significant between means
Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) Test
A hypothesis stating that results from a sample will differ from the population of another group but without stating how the results will differ
Two Tailed Hypothesis
An analysis of variance test appropriate for designs with two independent factors and an interval or ratio outcome
Two Way Between Subjects ANOVA
An analysis of variance test appropriate for designs with one independent factor, one dependent factor, and an interval or ratio outcome
Two Way Mixed ANOVA
An analysis of variance test appropriate for designs with two dependent factors and an interval or ratio outcome
Two Way Within Subjects ANOVA
The probability of rejecting a true H0; defined by the probability of the significance level of your findings
Type I Error
The probability of incorrectly retaining a false H0
Type II Error
A non normal distribution in which all scores or ratings have the same frequency
Uniform Distrbution
Measure that is made of behaviors or situations without disturbing the naturally occurring behavior or situation in order to reduce changes that might occur if there was awareness of measurement
Unobtrusive Measure
Accuracy of findings or measures
Validity
The degree to which scores differ from each other in the sample
Variability
A factor in a research study that has two or more possible values
Variable
The average of the squared difference between the mean and scores in a distribution, or the standard deviation squared
Variance (SD2)
A nonstatistical technique in which patterns of the A and B phases are compared
Visual Inspection
A control group in an experiment that is promised the same treatment as the experimental group after the experimental group has completed treatment and both groups have been assessed
Waitlist Control
A nonparametric test used to analyze ordinal data collected from two dependent groups
Wilcoxon T Test
The variability among the scores of participants created by individual or participant differences even under the same conditions
- Researchers attempt to reduce this type of variability
Within Groups (Error) Variance
The statistical test used to analyze dependent multiple groups design
Within Subjects ANOVA (or Repeated Measures ANOVA) (or Dependent Groups One Way ANOVA)
See dependent samples t test
Within Subjects T Test
Formula for a linear regression equation
Y1 = bx + a
The point at which a line of best fit crosses the y axis, designated as “a” in the regression equation
Y Predicted (Y1)
A standardized score based on the standard deviation of the distribution
Z Scores
