Definitions

Question 1

Affordances (James Gibson, 1977)

Answer 1

Properties an object possess
These qualities define how the object will be used and what it encourages you to do
Depends on perception in an environment as perception drives action as well as an individual capability (adult vs child)
“It is not what is inside the head that is important, but what the head is inside of”
Important to consider affordances when designing products e.g. architects
Products encourage:
1) cuddle-ability - see and act
2) explore-ability - curious, discover more
3) afford-ability - nudge you to take action

Question 2

Anxieties - children in the commercial world

Answer 2

Unhappy and negative relationships
Some anxieties are created in your head
Some anxieties are heightened and amplified through media
Children in society are seen in an emotional way due to the vulnerabilities
Anxieties are fuelled due to topics including:
1) Hidden dangers
2) Adult products - obesity, tobacco and alcohol
3) Sexualisation

Question 3

Brand Loyalty

Answer 3

A tendency for repeat purchases from a brand due to emotional connection: meet expectations or align with ones self identity
Customers see this brand as superior to others
Can be a conscious or subconscious
Based on perception
This is very subjective and varies between people, but a very powerful technique for companies
e.g. Nike vs Adidas

Question 4

Bronfenbrenner Model

Answer 4

Bioecological model of how a child develops overtime
Based on the qualities of the child and the environment
5 different system layers:
1) Microsystem: Directly influential factors e.g. family and peers - closest to the system (most influential level of system)
2) Mesosystem: Connecting/ building bridge between 2 areas of life e.g. teacher and parent
3) Exosystem: Indirect influences e.g. media
4) Macrosystem: All encompassing e.g. social and cultural beliefs
5) Chronosystem: Dimensions of time

Question 5

Central Route (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981)

Answer 5

This is one of two forms of persuasion, based on the interest and opinions in a topic
Requires thoughtful consideration of ideas and concepts
Only possible if have motivation and ability
Key for high involvement purchases/ decisions e.g. car
Include information on product information and it benefits
Needed for long-term persuasion

Question 6

Cognition, affect, conation

Answer 6

They are 3 types of attitudes/ way of thinking, which vary across consumption cycles and life spans

Based on 3 parts of the mind

Cognition = way we think (thoughts and beliefs) 
Affect = way we feel 
Conation = what motivates us

Question 7

Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger, 1957)

Answer 7

Internal conflict where two thoughts in your mind contradict each other creating a mental discomfort
Thoughts and behaviour are influenced by family, peers and media
This is a common feeling in purchasing also known as buyers regret
e.g. smoking - enjoyable but know it is bad for you

Question 8

Compulsive Shopping

Answer 8

Compulsive is the process where someone does something a lot and cannot stop
Compulsive shopping has been identified as an impulse control disorder by the WHO
An individual gain pleasure from shopping and their pleasure receptors are triggered just like drugs
If an individual is unable to shop then they can become anxious
This shopping obsession goes beyond consumerism
These individual struggle massively in the ‘dissolution’ stage of consumption

Question 9

Consumer Socialisation (Ward, 1974)

Answer 9

The way in which we learn and acquires skills, attitudes and knowledge relevant to how we function as a consumer in market place. This is a constant process throughout our lives which never stops and often an unintentional process

This topic is broad in terms of:
Economic - how spend money
Political - huge interest to policy makers

Traditionally seen as a one way process whereby children learn from their parent but now different:

1) Interfamilial
2) Celebrities
3) Advertising

Family influences beliefs, religions and manners
Friends influences fashion and style (way you express_

Question 10

Contagion

Answer 10

Tendency for someone to repeat behaviour of someone else once they have performed it
This is often an unconscious process and part of being human
People find comfort in doing and being similar to others
Influences self identity
This term was adopted from medical stances
e.g. dress or speak in a certain way due to friends or celebrities

Question 11

Dissolution

Answer 11

The way in which an individual dispose of a purchase
This is the 5th stage of the consumption cycle
Many ways to dispose and these are subjective but people are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental factors
Throw away, return, pass on to family or hoard (this is particularly common of compulsive shoppers)
Reason for actions depends on nature of products - is it part of your self identity

Question 12

Dual Process Theory (Kahneman)

Answer 12

There are two systems:
We spend most of our time in S1, however most people identify themselves with S2

System 1: Thinking fast, gut instinct
Decisions based on limited information
Fast, automatic and effortless thought process
Based on first impressions we create judgements

System 2: Thinking slow, more rational
This comes into play when S1 fails
Critical thinking approach, often when we encounter something unexpected

Question 13

Ecological Niche

Answer 13

The accustomed place where a child performs, behaves and does things (this is often the home surrounded by family)
The child here learns to behave in this particular setting - what to do, how to thinks and develops mental structures
Link to schemata

Question 14

Elaboration Likelihood

Answer 14

Model of persuasion focusing on changing people’s attitudes

Central:
Requires thoughtful consideration of ideas and concepts
Only possible if have motivation and ability
Key for high involvement purchases/ decisions e.g. car
Include information on product information and it benefits
Needed for long-term persuasion

Peripheral:
Influenced more on other cues aside from the discussion
Passive process
Low involvement
Focus on making products look more attractive
Needed for short-term persuasion

Question 15

Embodied Cognition

Answer 15

Originally mind and matter considered two different things but now stance is focusing on bodies being part of our minds
The brain is important but not the only source that generates behaviour
Body helps to solve problems we couldn’t do with just our brain
Used to think action was influenced by thought, but now believe thought can be influenced by action
e.g. Baseball fielder catching a ball - if you add a body that can move then get a better perception of how it is moving and where it will land

Question 16

Emic & Etic Approaches to Cross -Cultural Research

Answer 16

Two different approaches to studying humans and how they behave across cultures

Emic:
Insider, bottom up
Looks at consumption from within the system only examining one culture (through the eyes of the culture)
Distinctive features and categories
Allows people to speak for themselves and hope new concepts appear, common when researching topics not already heavily theorised

Etic:
Outsider, top down
Universal approach, examining many cultures comparing them
What is universal across cultures by comparing and contrasting
Typical of large-scale questionnaire based work

Question 17

Endowment Effect

Answer 17

The state whereby an individual values something they already own as more valuable and superior to something they do not own

This would result in them demanding significantly more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire

This concept states economic exchange is not symmetrical, trading is not straightforward and a product value is subjective and personal

Emotional bias influences this

e.g. old bottle of wine seen a more valuable than a new one to individual - large sense of personal welfare

Question 18

Forced Binary Choice Recognition Paradigm

Answer 18

People notice things without being conscious of the fact, often used to work out if advertising has been successful

The ability for an individual to process information is measure by forced binary choice recognition paradigm

Forced - presented with no options and have to decide
Binary - presented with a choice of 2 (something you have seen, something you haven’t seen)
Recognition - when you remember seeing something

Question 19

Advertising Literacy

Answer 19

An individuals ability to understand the meaning and intention of adverts, this varies massively across a persons lifecycle particularly throughout childhood due to cognitive development and naivety

Question 20

Zajonc Experiment (1980)

Answer 20

Focused on social facilitation

This experiment highlights how people behave different when they are alone vs with other people

When with other people they have an increased physiological arousal

The experiment was based and showing impact on:

1) Ease of task
2) Presence of others (sometimes it hurts, sometimes it helps)

Result:
Simple task are performed better when in front of people
Complex less familiar (repetition priming) task performed better when along

Cockroach experiment: Mazes to test how quickly they run through successfully - FINDINGS:

1) Ran faster when in a pair or have an audience
2) Ran slower in pairs compared to by themselves when the maze became more complex

When performing in ecological niche everything is familiar so better in company

Question 21

Generation Theory (William Straus)

Answer 21

Generations are based on cohorts of the year of birth where people share similar values and characteristics - often grouped in 20 year periods

Generations are often bound by significant events e.g. war

Event in recent history allow them to have specific behaviour patters - the era in which an individual was born influences their opinion and view of the world

Gen X = 1960-80
Gen Y/ Millenials = 1980-2000

William Straus believed ‘critical turning point’ every 8 years where a social order is destroyed and a new one is created but now seen as 20 years

Marketers must consider these time periods

e.g. generations ability to deal with technology

Question 22

Hierarchy Of Effects

Answer 22

Process in which consumers go through to purchase a product - advertiser must consider this process when designing adverts

6 steps from viewing a product to purchasing it: the job of advertiser is to encourage consumer to go through all step. Large amount of effort required to get from stage 1 to 6

Grouped into threes stages (Lavidge and Steiner)

1) Product aware (Cognitive) - 1&2
2) Like the brand (Affect) - 3&4
3) Buying of product (Conative) - 5&6

6 stages are:
1) Awareness
Becomes aware through advert
2) Knowledge
More possible through internet and apps
3) Liking
Make attractive and likeable e.g. packaging
4) Preference
Advertisers need to establish a USP
5) Conviction
Offer sample to encourage customers, reassure them e.g. food samples yes drive a car
6) Purchase
Make it quick and easy otherwise they will walk away e.g. Apple Pay

Question 23

Hofstede Dimension of Cross-Cultural Research (1970)

Answer 23

Hofstede theory highlights impact culture has on values of cultural members and how these relate to behaviour in the workplace

6 dimensions: (PIMULI)

1) Power distance
2) Individualism vs collectivism
3) Masculinity vs femininity
4) Uncertainty avoidance index
5) Long term orientation versus short term normative orientation
6) Indulgence vs restraint

Question 24

Identity Crisis

Answer 24

Internal conflict with ones self over the uncertainty of their role

This is often characteristic of a particular stage of development: adolescence and mid-life crisis

Identity becomes confused due to hormones but this identity crisis must be resolved to allow you to continuing developing. During adolescence identity is confused as people test and explore their identity

Consider: sexuality and gender

Question 25

Images of Childhood

Answer 25

These image of childhood related to the images connected to growing up - these are often seen as 2 things:
Imp/ Cheeky chap: tough, independent, savvy, street wise - part of the dangerous world
Innocent: Associated with being pure and worthy of education due to behaving in an ‘ideal’ way. This child is seen as needing protecting as innocent in a dangerous world

Question 26

Impulsivity and Risk Taking in Youth

Answer 26

Impulsivity: action with little thought
Risk taking: doing something that involves danger to achieve a goal

Adolescents have both these characteristics and are triggered by promise of instant reward

Further enhanced due to ego-centric self centred nature

Driven by:
Peer pressure
Puberty - temporal gap which impels adolescents to thrill seek due to slow maturation of cognitive control system which regulates impulses = more vulnerable to risky behaviour

Depends on:
Ability to self control - relation to emotions
Gender - seen there is a divide with boys being more impulsive

e.g. drugs, alcohol and dangerous driving

Question 27

Peripheral Route

Answer 27

Influenced more on other cues aside from the discussion
Passive process
Low involvement
Focus on making products look more attractive
Needed for short-term persuasion

This route is taken when someone not interested in the topic

Question 28

Materialism

Answer 28

The love of material possessions whereby are excessively concerned with the physical comforts or acquisitions of wealth and material possessions rather than with experiential, spiritual, intellectual or cultural value

An individual place a high value on objects, whereby they are considered more valuable than experience or interpersonal relationships

People ‘like to own things that impress people’ as they’d be ‘happier if they could afford to buy more things’ (Richins, 2004)

The impulse to own, buy and possess things is natural to human beings - inline with Darwins theory of evolution as natural resources are limited human compete over them and impress people

Link to compulsive shopping - does materialism buy happiness? or does it eat you up from the inside out?

Question 29

Metaphor In Advertising

Answer 29

A metaphor is an expression often found in literature that describes a person or object by referring to something that is considered to have similar characteristics

Adverts use metaphors to transform brands from being ordinary, simplistic and unexciting into a ‘world of dreams’ where the object is idealised or romanticised

Metaphors are powerful in advertising enhancing the value of brand making it seem more personal and help to create a brand image

Metaphors in advertising can make the advert seem very unrealistic and create a sense of irony - people can see and understand this creating a discussion point

Question 30

Mid-Life Crisis

Answer 30

This is a stage in the central period of your life (often age 40-65) whereby you are hit with role confusion

Within society individuals have an ‘ideal’ vision as to how families and children grow up, parents can often become envious of their children as they come to the realisation they will be finishing their jobs soon and reminiscing on fun cool activities they did in their youth

It is not universal and does not happen to everyone, there are several factors it depends on

This concept is similar to identity crisis for adolescents which often isn’t spoken about but media hype

Question 31

Mindfullness

Answer 31

It is a mode of consciousness capability enhanced by actively attending to and being aware of the present moment reality

“keeping ones consciousness alive in the present reality”

Originated in 1970

Young 2018: Acquire mindfulness
Should be done on a daily basis

Link to the self
e.g. meditation common in current days and age due to lifestyle pressures

Question 32

Ownership In Young Children

Answer 32

It is the state of owning something - with a focus on the history of the object and not its features

2-3 years old: children know which toys are their own and which are other children’s

Children can mentally work with the history of objects - due to family telling them which toys are and aren’t theirs

Children’s cognitive development thad progresses by that stage of their life time development, it is in human nature (endowment effect) to more heavily value your own items

Question 33

Post-decisional Conflict Resolution

Answer 33

This is the cognitive dissonance an individual feels following the purchase of a product - an internal conflict as to whether we should have purchased the product or not (stage 4 of consumption cycle)

We must correct the mental discomfort by convincing ourselves one way or another

This is done by changing… (BAP)

1) Beliefs
2) Actions
3) Perception of action

Question 34

Priming

Answer 34

Ability to subconsciously influence an individuals specific behaviour

Implicit memory effect where exposure to a stimulus influences a response to later stimulus (due to our brains subconsciously using association)

This effect occurs below of conscious threshold

If something helpful provided in environment will help influence individuals

Minds are constantly active and sometime not aware of taking in information = lack of self control

e.g. music, objects, brand priming
see colour yellow more likely to spot a banana

Link to schemata

Question 35

Schemata

Answer 35

The structure/ cognitive framework of the mind acquired in childhood

Schemata is a key principle of learning, this construct is based on past experience which generates future expectations due to way we structure and categorise thoughts and words

Help create our understanding of the world

Instantly improve score in recollection by categorising thoughts

Question 36

Subliminal Perception

Answer 36

The state whereby a stimulus is too weak or distorted to be consciously perceived however strong enough for an individual to be influenced - it is ‘below the threshold’

We perceive without awareness, influenced by information we don’t recall

Perception involves attention and remembering involves cognitive storage, this is incredibly complex

There are limitations to our senses we don’t register everything and sometime can only be stored for a matter of seconds (brief memory systems SIS)

Link to implicit processing, you are not aware of what is going on in mind

Question 37

Implicit Process

Answer 37

Mental events and processes that you are not aware of

You are unable to recognise or recall a brand and deny seeing it

Zajonc effect states this can be overridden by adverts

Priming is key

Question 38

Terror Management

Answer 38

Theory explains the defensive human thinking and behaviour that stems from the fear of death

There are world cultural view that differ across history and culture as to:
Why we are here
How should we behave

Our views on death can influence:
Self esteem
Hierarchy of effects

Question 39

4 P’s

Answer 39

Components of the ‘marketing mix’
Foundation model in marketing to help determine a clear strategy when taking new product to market

Product: tangible vs intangible varying lifecycle lengths
Place: direct or indirect
Price: one of most challenging factors
Promotion: how and where

Question 40

Theory Of Mind

Answer 40

Understanding of other people an themselves - ability to recognise and attribute mental states through perception

Aged 4 children develop this ability - however slower for children with autism and Aspergers

Children become more self aware and understand others

Understand based on:
Beliefs (believes world to be)
Desires (goals)
Pretence (people don’t always mean what they say)

Happens at all ages when child enters new developmental stages due to egocentrism

Question 41

Tweenies

Answer 41

Ages 9-12 and are extensively marketed to due to their purchasing power

Understand advertising at this ages

Question 42

Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self (Charles Cooley)

Answer 42

Our self image is influenced by society our interactions and our perception of others
Who we are is shaped by socialisation
Comes from the idea that the human mind is social
Our mental abilties are a direct result of our social interaction
People’s perceptions of themselves manifests from how society views them - peoples social interactions help sculpt our self
People learn to belief they have certain characteristics by the people around them e.g. people find you humorous
Essentially society is a mirror staring back at an individual

Question 43

Gift Giving

Answer 43

There are though to be 3 types of gifts

1. Things
2. Experiences - these tend to make people happier than ‘things’
3. Sentiments - carry a high value or meaning to an individual

Question 44

Independent and Interdependent Self-Construal

Answer 44

Independent and interdependent self-construal
Self-construal refers to the way in which a person thinks about and defines the self.

Self-construal is not only a way of viewing oneself but also a way of understanding one’s relationship to the larger social world.

Acquired through the process of socialisation beginning with interaction with family and peers

the acquisition of an interdependent self‐construal is related to using social comparison while children are in the process of developing a self‐concept

Depends on socialculutral influence
Massive influence on anxiety and self esteem

Interdependent self is common in Japan - driven by society and items
Independent - driven by own motives and personality