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Definitions Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Proximate Causation

A

Immediate or short-term cause of something

Example: How does the male cardinal get its red color? What is the current role of mitochondria?

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2
Q

Ultimate Causation

A

Why something exists the way it does.

Example: Why is the male cardinal red and not the female? When did mitochondria originate.

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3
Q

Evolution

A

Descent with modification.
1. Change in genetic composition of populations.
2. Cumulative changes in traits.
Requires genetic variation!

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4
Q

Diversification

A

New species

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5
Q

Microevolution

A

Generation-to-generation changes.

Example: What are the causes of evolution.

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6
Q

Macroevolution

A

Long-term changes above the species level (historical patterns)
Example: What has been the history of life on earth?

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7
Q

Mutation

A
  1. Error in DNA replication
  2. Ultimate source of all genetic variation
  3. CONTINUOUSLY SUPPLIES NEW ALLELES
  4. Single gene mutation low, genome wide high
  5. Arise stochastically not deterministically
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8
Q

Macromutations

A

Changes in chromosome or gene number.

Example: Deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions, fusions, point mutations.

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9
Q

Inversion

A

ABEDCF

Example: Orangutan inversion.

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10
Q

Fusion

A

Example: Human 2 fusion

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11
Q

Recombination

A
  1. Shuffles new genes into new combinations
  2. Increases variation of how genes are packaged
  3. Do not change in a short time scale
    Example: Independent segregation, crossing-over.
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12
Q

Genetic Drift

A

Random changes in allele frequencies due to sampling error.
1. Major short-term cause of changes in allele frequencies
2. Depends on population size
3. Causes a loss in genetic variation
Example: Elephant seal, Greater prairie chicken.

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13
Q

Bottleneck effect

A



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14
Q

Founder effect

A

Founders carry unusual allele frequencies by sampling error alone.

  1. Form of genetic drift
  2. Important for some cases of speciation
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15
Q

Spatial subdivision

A

Patchy food, nesting sites or habitat

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16
Q

Gene flow

A

Movement of individuals or gametes between subpopulations.
1. Counteracts effects of genetic drift
2. Can speed up or slow down adaptive change
3. Prevents local adaptation
Example: Prevents insects from adapting to pesticide if some farmers spray. If all farmers spry then can spread favorable allele to all populations.

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17
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A

Allele and genotype frequencies remain constant between generations because it is a non-evolving populations characterized by:

(1) no net mutations, (2) no genetic drift (infinitely large pop), (3) no gene flow (pop isolated), (4) random mating and
(5) no natural selection)

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18
Q

Natural Selection

A

ONLY process that produces ADAPTATIVE change
Requires 3 conditions:
1. Phenotypic variation
2. Fitness differences
3. Variation in genotype
Cannot predetermine what is most useful—can only adapt to current challenges
A NON-RANDOM PROCESS
A compromise of traits that reflect historical constraints (TINKERER not engineer)
Example: Example of constraint of natural selection: Bipedalism in humans, lungs connected to stomachs in mammals, retrofitting of the testicles, laryngeal nerve in humans and giraffes, vestigal femur bone in whales and hind limb bones in snakes, mammal eye vs mollusc eye (evagination of brain vs invagination of epidermis)

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19
Q

Fitness

A

A measure of reproductive success

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20
Q

Directional Selection

A

Example: Guppie size in streams with or without predators, beak size of Soapberry bug in Flordia.

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21
Q

Disruptive Selection

A

Example: Bill size in African finches.

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22
Q

Stabilizing Selection

A

Example: Gall size of Gall fly, birth weight of human babies.

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23
Q

Juvenilization

A

Artifical selection for more juvenile like features.

Example: Wolf to dog, cattle reduced size, silver foxes breed for tameness.

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24
Q

Artificial Selection

A

Breed for a predetermined goal or path.

Example: Wild mustard cultivated into eatable kale, broccoli, cabbage, etc.

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25
Q

Pleiotropy

A

Single gene affects multiple traits.

Example: Fruit fly: bigger body size gene is same as longer egg-to-adult development time gene.

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26
Q

Sexual Selection

A

Heritable differences in ability to find mate of opposite sex.
Example: Exceptions that prove rules: Male katydids carry eggs while developing— females are much bigger. Male Phalaropes care for young, females much brighter and bigger.

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27
Q

Intrasexual Selection

A

Male-male competition (direct competition for mates).
Example: Explains behavioral/morphological traits:
(antlers, territorial behavior), post- copulatory sperm competition.

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28
Q

Anisogamy

A

Different investment per gamete.

Example: Post-zygotic care by females much higher.

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29
Q

Male

A

Produces many gametes (low investment).

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30
Q

Male

A

Produces many gametes (low investment).

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31
Q

Females

A

Produces few well-provisioned gametes (high investment).

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32
Q

Monogamy

A

One partner for entire reproductive life.

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33
Q

Polygyny

A

One male multiple females.

Example: *Sexual dimorphism (difference between sexes) is greater in polygnous species than in monogamous species.

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34
Q

Polyandry

A

One female multiple males.

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35
Q

Polygamy

A

Multiple partners for everyone.

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36
Q

Speciation

A

Populations that could once interbreed no longer can Requires:
1. Interruption of gene flow which causes isolation mechanisms.

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37
Q

Taxonomic species

A

Category of classification, generally determined by morphology.

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38
Q

Biological species

A

Species that can interbreed but are reproductively isolated from each other.

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39
Q

Prezygotic barriers

A

An isolating mechanism that prevents successful mating and fertilization.
Example: Habitat, temporal, gametic, behavioral (for species with specific mate- recognition systems), gametic
*Single gene causes mechanical isolation in land snail

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40
Q

Postzygotic barriers

A

Fertilization occurs, hybrids are inviable or infertile or break down after a few generations (can have parital barriers, one cross fertile the other isn’t).

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41
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

Caused by geographical seperations (glacier comes through, climate change, etc).
Example: Uplift of panamanian land bridge creates different lobster species.

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42
Q

Dispersal-mediated speciation

A

Pregnant lizard gets pulled out to sea and ends up on an island.

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43
Q

Vicariant speciation

A

Geographical change causes species to be seperated and change.
Example: Desert pupfish.

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44
Q

Ring species

A

Occur when ancestral population expands around a barrier. Gene flow is limited between populations. Closed ring, ends can’t breed.
Example: Western US salamader.

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45
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

Interruption of gene flow, generally in plants due to polyploidy.

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46
Q

Polyploidy

A

Increase in # of chromosomes.

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47
Q

Autopolyploidy

A

Double number of chromosomes.

Example: Potato, alfalfa, goatsbeard.

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48
Q

Allopolyploidy

A

Messed up chromosomal segregation changes number of chromosomes
More common.
Example: Cotton, tobacco, wheat, Marsh grasses (Spartina spp.)

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49
Q

Systematics

A

Establishes genealogial relationships among organisms.

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50
Q

Phylogeneic trees

A

Assembled around shared derived characteristics *have free rotation around each node.

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51
Q

Homology

A

Common ancestry means some species have same characteristics.
Example: Arms of human, cat, whale and bat.

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52
Q

Homoplasy

A

Caused by convergent evolution–traits evolved independently of each other
Example: Tasmanioan wolf tiger.

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53
Q

Paraphyletic

A

Grouping where one member is more related to some one else than the rest of the group.

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54
Q

Monophyletic

A

Grouping where everyone equally related.

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55
Q

Stromatolites

A

Earliest fossils from 3.5 bya

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56
Q

Phanerozoic eon

A

Last 550 million yrs - most fossil record comes from this eon.

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57
Q

Paleozoic era

A

550-250 may “ancient life”
Example: Biggest mass die off at brink at Premian/Triassic boundry. >50% of families and >80-90% species (due to vulcanism.

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58
Q

Mesozoic era

A

250-65 may “middle life”

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59
Q

Cenozoic era

A

65 may - present “recent life”

Example: Another big extinction at cretaceous/tertiary boundry. Dinosaurs, ammonites and rudists decimated.

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60
Q

Mass extinction

A

99% of all species are extinct.

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61
Q

Proof of asteroid

A

High concentration of iridium, shocked quartz and Chicxulub crater.

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62
Q

Whale evolution

A

Ambulocetus, rodhocetus and modern whale

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63
Q

Transitional species

A

Only identified retrospectively.

Example: Sphecomyrma freyi (ant/wasp), Archaeopteryx (dinosaur/bird)

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64
Q

Evolution mammals

A

Synapsid, therapsid, cynodont, mammals.

Example: Morganucadon, hadrocodium wui (had a derived ear structure)

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65
Q

Developmental biology

A

Reconstructy paths of change to help us understand how genetic change impacts phenotype
*tells us about homologous characteristics.
Example: Stylopod, zeugopod, autopod (Tiktaalik had neck and limb bones, Acanthostega actual tetrapod limb skeleton).

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66
Q

Heterochrony

A

Evolutionary change in the timing or rate of development.

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67
Q

Paedomorphosis

A

Retain more juvenille features.

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68
Q

Peramorphosis

A

Have more adult features.

69
Q

Directional Selection

A

Example: Guppie size in streams with or without predators, beak size of Soapberry bug in Flordia.https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Fhomework-help%2Fcompare-contrast-directional-selection-disruptive-469344&ei=DaI9VZCcPMa3ogS49YHYBg&bvm=bv.91665533,d.cGU&psig=AFQjCNHE0RjMsQJimOntbQOuw7CLXL0uHQ&ust=1430188892248631

70
Q

Paedomorphosis

A

Retention of a juvenile characteristic as a sexually mature adult.
Example: 1. Axolotl
2. Human skull shape
compared to apes

71
Q

Peramorphosis

A

Extended fetal growth rate because of delayed maturation.

Example: Human brain/body size ratio.

72
Q

Atavisms

A

Traits reappearing that have disappeared generations before (i.e. throwbacks to ancestral form).
Example: Horses with side toes, whales with femurs, chickens with teeth, humans with tails.

73
Q

Pseudogenes

A

Organisms retain genes for making structures no longer found in their lineage.

74
Q

Primates

A
  1. Mammal order, 250 sp.
  2. Chacteristics: (1) stereoscopic
    color vision, (2) large brain/body size, (3) tree-dwelling tropical creatures.
  3. Adaptations: (1) opposable thumb, (2) flat nails, (3) complex facial muscles, (4) free rotation at shoulder, (5) half rotation at elbow.
75
Q

Strepsirhines

A

Wet-nosed primates.

Example: Lorises, galagos, lemurs.

76
Q

Haplorhines

A

Dry-nosed primates.

77
Q

Tarsliformes

A

Tarsiers

78
Q

Anthropoldea

A

(simiiformes)

79
Q

Platyrhines

A

New-world monkeys, prehensile tail.

Example: spider monkey.

80
Q

Catarrhines

A

No prehensile tail, 2 premolars, narrow nose, TRICHROMATIC color vision (can tell red-green).
Example: Baboon, proboscis monkey.

81
Q

Cercopithecoids

A

Old-world monkeys.

Example: gibbons

82
Q

Hominoids

A

Apes (and humans)
Characteristics: erect posture, spine stiffer, arms flexible, larger pelvis, NO tail.
Example: Oranguatn, gorilla, both chimp species and humans.

83
Q

Orangutan

A

Fruit eaters, habitual brachiation.

Example: Bomean, Sumatran

84
Q

Gorilla

A

Dominated by males, live in polygynous colonies (males 2x size of females).

85
Q

Chimpanzee

A

Extended childcare, sleep in trees, knuckle-walker, extensive tool use.
Example: Bonobo, Chimpanzee. Split from humans 7 million yrs. ago.

86
Q

Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH)

A

We can trace linage of AMH via fossil record in the rift valley. First seen 100,00 ya.

87
Q

Ardipithecus ramidus

A

Live 4.5 mya. Had:

  1. Small brain
  2. Bipedal
  3. Ape like
88
Q

Australopithecus afarensis

A 
Lived 3 mya. Had:
1. Small brain
2. Bipedal
3. Strong ape jaw
Example: Lucy
89
Q

Australopithecus africanus

A

Lived 2.5 mya. Had:
1. Slightly larger brain
Example: Taung child

90
Q

Australopithecus garhi

A

Lived 2.5 mya. Contemporary to A. africanus.

91
Q

Australopithecus sediba

A

Lived 2 mya. More like homo than other australopithecines.

92
Q

Paranthropus robustus/boisei/aethiopicus

A

Lived 2.5 mya. Had:

  1. Small brain
  2. Strong eyebrow line (sagittal crest)
  3. Big jaw
93
Q

Homo

A
  1. Increased brain/body size ration

2. Made stone tools

94
Q

Paleolithic tools

A

H. habilis made OLDOWAN tools, H. erectus made ACHEULEAN,
H. neanderthalensis made MOUSTERIAN,
H. sapiens made AURIGNACIAN

95
Q

Paleolithic tools

A

H. habilis made OLDOWAN tools, H. erectus made ACHEULEAN,
H. neanderthalensis made MOUSTERIAN,
H. sapiens made AURIGNACIAN

96
Q

H. ergaster

A

Lived 1.5 mya. Had:
1. Bigger brain
2. Not human/not ape
Example: Turkana boy

97
Q

H. erectus

A 
Lived 1.7 mya. Had:
1. Bigger brain
2. Not totally human yet
Shows pre-humans moving out of Africa
Example: Skeleton in Republic of Georgia,
Java Man (Beijing man lived .75 mya).
98
Q

H. Neanderthals

A

Lived until 30,000 ya. Had:

  1. Strong brow line
  2. Big Nose
  3. Stocky body build
  4. Sloping forehead
  5. Occipital bun
99
Q

Multiregional model

A

H. erectus/sapiens spread around old world and simultaneously evolved to modern form through GENE FLOW

100
Q

Replacement model (out-of-Africa model)

A

Single group of H. sapiens dispersed from Africa and killed off/replaced all other pre-AMH species.

101
Q

Stone-Age genomics

A
  1. We have average similarity in DNA of 99.5%
  2. Europeans/Asians show 2-8% Neanderthal DNA
  3. Some gene flow between AMH and Neanderthals abt 50 – 60, 000 ya
  4. Entire mtDNA genome points to African origins
102
Q

Cro-Magnon people

A
  1. First seen 35-40,000 ya.
  2. Made fires, buried people, had
    religion by 28,000 ya.
  3. Made beads 80,000 ya
  4. Minor genetic change as we
    spread (i.e. cold tolerance, malaria resistance, skin color, height, etc.)
  5. Gradual transition to H. sapien during Pleistocene
103
Q

Ecology

A

Study of interactions between organisms and their environments.

104
Q

Abiotic components

A

Light, water, temp, wind

105
Q

Biotic components

A

Organisms ( i.e. predator, prey, parasites, etc)

106
Q

Density

A

number of individuals per unit area.

107
Q

Dispersion

A

Clumped, uniform, random

108
Q

Vital statistics

A

Tell us if our population is growing, shrinking or staying the same. Need to know: (1) age structure, (2) birth rate and (3) death rates which allow you to calculate (4) generation time.

109
Q

Generation time

A

Average time between the birth of a female and the birth of her offspring.

110
Q

Net replacement rate

A

The net replacement rate = the sum of Ix times mx for each age class. x:
Be able to calculate net replacement rates and decide whether a population is growing or shrinking from a life table.

111
Q

Survivorship curves

A

Be able to identify the three different types.

112
Q

Life-history traits

A

Traits that effect births and deaths.

Example: life-span, age of first reproduction, litter size, number of times organism reproduces.

113
Q

Semelparity

A

Reproduces once and a whole bunch all at once (big-bang reproduction).
Example: Salmon, century plant

114
Q

Iteroparity

A

Repeated reproduction

Example: Oak trees, humans

115
Q

Trade-off between current reproduction and survival

A

The less babies you make (or no babies) the more likely you are to survive. When you invest engergy and resources into reproduction you are more likely to get eaten by a predator/starve etc

116
Q

Logistic growth model

A

dN/dt = rN (K - N / K)
dN/dt =Change in population size over a
change in time
=rate of population change (births minus deaths)
=the number of individuals in the
= carrying capacity (maximum population size that can be supported by availabe resources
Example: If dN/dt is negative the population will be decreasing. If dN/dt is positive it will be increasing.

117
Q

Positively density-dependent factors

A

A regulating mortatlity factor has positively density-dependent factors. The bigger the population size, proportionally more individuals will be killed.
**Keeps populations within upper and lower bounds
Example: Food and water, predation, vector-transmitted diseases, territorial behavior, toxic wastes. Ex. Reproduction of sheep.

118
Q

Human population growth

A

Humans grow exponentially because of a drop in death rates.

119
Q

Ecological community

A

Assemblage of species in a given area.

120
Q

Interspecific interactions

A

Interactions between two species.

Example: Competition, consumer-victim, mutualism, etc.

121
Q

Competition

A

↓Species 1 ↓Species 2

Example: Competitive exclusion, fundamental/realized niche, character displacement.

122
Q

Consumer-victim

A

↑Species 1 ↓Species 2

Example: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism Cryptic/Aposematic Coloration, Batesian Mimicry, Secondary compounds

123
Q

Mutualism

A

↑Species 1 ↑Species 2
Example: Pollination, ants tend aphids/treehopper—they get food and treehooper gets protection, ants and the acacia tree, impala and oxpecker.

124
Q

Commensalism

A

↑Species 1 0 Species 2

Example: Egrets and large ungulates.

125
Q

Amensalism

A

↓Species 1 0 Species 2

Example: Gypsy moth

126
Q

Population cycles

A

Density-dependent predation can lead to population cycles.

Example: snowshoe and lynx

127
Q

Prey defenses

A

Help prey escape their predators.
Example: Cryptic coloration, mimicry, etc
**Can have a combination of morphological/behavioral defense (like KILLDEAR which has cryptic colored eggs and fakes a broken wing to attract attention away from its nest.).

128
Q

Cryptic coloration

A

Prey blends in with environment.

Example: Catepillar that looks like bird dropping or a leaf, tawny frogmouth.

129
Q

Aposematic coloration

A

Distasteful or dangerous (poisonous) prey use bright coloration to warn off predators.
Example: Poison-dart frogs, fire salamander, monarch butterfly.

130
Q

Batesian mimicry

A

Harmless prey mimics a dangerous one.

Example: Flies look like honeybees.

131
Q

Batesian mimicry

A

Harmless prey mimics a dangerous one.

Example: Flies look like honeybees, yellow jackets, etc.

132
Q

Counter-strategy

A

Predator evolves a behavior in order to overcome prey defense, or herbivore will overcome plant defense.
Example: Mouse sticks stink bug hind end in soil and eats it. Katydid cuts where resin oozes and then katydid eats top of plant.
Tobacoo hornworm have enyzme that converts nicotine to nornicotine which is nontoxic.

133
Q

Physical defenses in plants

A

Thorns, spines, leaf toughness.

134
Q

Secondary compounds

A

Part of plants chemical defense, are biproducts of biochemical pathways and plant will keep them to make them distasteful or poisonous. Have three different uses (1)deter feeding, (2) interfer with digestion or (3) act as toxin.
Example: Alkoliods (in potato, tomato, tobacoo) –nicotine toxic to human and insects, caffine, capsasin
Rotenone, angelicin, mescaline.

135
Q

Constitutive toxins

A

Always present in high levels in plants

136
Q

Induced toxins

A

When plant is wounded/or infect by bacteria, the plant will increase the amount of toxin in the plant.

137
Q

Competitive exclusion

A

**Intensity of competition depends on the organisms ecological niches.

138
Q

Niche

A

Sum total of the organisms use of biotic and abiotic resources.
Example: Habitat = address. Niche = occupation

139
Q

Fundamental niche

A

Set of environmental condition and resources within which the population can sustain positive growth.

140
Q

Realized niche

A

(must be smaller or equal to fundamental niche) the space the organism actually occupies.
Examples: Chthamalus, Balanus

141
Q

Character displacement

A

If competition is strong enough for long enough, the will adapt to minimize the competition.
Example: Darwin’s finches

142
Q

Keystone species

A

If you remove the species then the species diversity will go down.
Example: Pisaster sea star (if gone then you get bivalve muscle bed that out compete everything)

143
Q

Biodiversity

A

Genetic diversity, species diversity in ecosystem, community and ecosystem diversity in region.
Example: Abt 2 million species w/latin name on earth
**but we don’t have a good estimate.

144
Q

Species-area relationships

A

If you plot log number of species against the log number of area you get a linear relationship. Can help you get a good idea of what extinction rate is from this.

145
Q

Extinction

A

Causes: habitat destruction (brazil), introduction of exotic organisms/diseases (argentine ant), pollution, over harvesting.
Example: Passenger pigeon (hunted out by 1914), Great auk (hunted to extinction),

146
Q

Fragmented habitats

A

Does not support as large a diversity of animals

147
Q

Endemic species

A

Found only in a small specific region.
Example: Species in Hawaii, many bird species in Hawaii are dying off because of introduction of forgein species (malaria, predation.

148
Q

Background rate of extinction

A

Rate of extinction before human activities.

Example: **human extinction rate is 10 -100 times faster than the background rate.

149
Q

Extinction (Why worry?)

A 
1. Recovery time much longer than
human time (million of yrs)
2. We’re present this time
3. We’re losing organisms we
could use as resources
4. We need organisms to maintain
ecosystem health
Example: Rosy Periwinkle (helped treat Hodgkin’s disease and childhood leukemia.
150
Q

Behavior

A

What an animal does and how and why it does it.

Example: Proximate vs ultimate (black headed gull moving egg shells—deflects predation).

151
Q

Partial genetic basis

A

Behaviors can be modified by natural selection.
Example: Fischer’s lovebird vs peach- faced lovebird, maedow voles vs prairie voles, blackheaded gull vs kittiwake gull (ULTIMATE CUES).

152
Q

Proximate cues for behavior

A

Example: 1. Bee-wolf (Have spatital learning by flying around in circle around nest and remembering visual landmark)
2. Male singing bird:
comes from hormones (melationin: seasonal timing, estrogen: primes song system, testosterone: activates song)

153
Q

Fixed-action pattern

A

Innately programmed behavior triggered by a single stimulus (sign stimulut/release).
Example: Sticklebacks (respond to red on objects), Greylag goose (moves round object into nest).

154
Q

Learning

A

Allows an individual to adjust its behavior in an adaptive way.
Example: Habituation, imprinting, associate learning, cognition, play

155
Q

Habituation (“cry-wolf” effect)

A

When an animal learns not to respond to a stimulus

156
Q

Imprinting

A

Irreversible and occurs only during critical window of time.

Example: Goslings follow any large object=”mom”.

157
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Animal associates a neutral stimulus with a non-neutral stimulus. Animal pairs stimuli in an adaptive way. Reservable.
Example: 1. Pavlov dogs.
NEUTRAL STIMULUS = bell. NONNEUTRAL STIMULUS= meat.
2. Fruit flies avoid odor that is associated with electric shock.

158
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Animal learns to associate on of its own behaviors with an outcome (trial-and- error learning).
Example: Skinner box (one bar presses gives mouse food).

159
Q

Animal cognition

A

Complex form of learning that involves reasoning, problem-solving, judgment.
Example: Predator-specific alarms, chimps crack nuts, chimps stack boxes.

160
Q

Animals sense world different than us

A
  1. Communication for many organisms mediated by pheromones
  2. bees guided by UV light
  3. bees dance to communicate
161
Q

Pheromone

A

Chemical released by animals that communicate something.

162
Q

Round dance

A

Bee saying food is nearby.

163
Q

Waggle dance

A

Food is further away. Make figure 8 in vertical portion of hive. Angle of waggle dance is proportional to direction you have to fly from where sun is now.
Example: Up = towards sun. Down = away from sun

164
Q

Altruistic

A

Decrease the fitness of individual expressing the behavior but benefits other individuals
**happends in organisms with stable kin groups.
Example: Alarm-calling ground squirrels.

165
Q

Altruistic

A

Decrease the fitness of individual expressing the behavior but benefits other individuals
**happends in organisms with stable kin groups.
Example: Alarm-calling ground squirrels.

166
Q

Kin selection

A

Special kind of natural selection where genes will spread if it benefits enough close relatives.

167
Q

Non-zero heritability

A

All behaviors have a partial genetic basis

168
Q

Heritability

A

Proportion of total phenotypic variability caused by underlying genetic
variation
h^2 = Vg/Vp
Ranges from 0 -1
0.5 variation means that half variation due to genes half due to environment.
Example: Have found 75 genes that increase risk to schizophrenia. Some alleles help you be smart for other genetic backgrounds non-adaptive. Monoamine oxidase gene, dopamine D2 receptor gene (learn from mistakes), FOXP2 transcription-factor for language development

Biology 1620 (1 decks)

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