Definitions Flashcards
Neurogenesis
Production of new neurons through the division of neural stem cells; occurs in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb and appears to play a role in learning.
Neuro Plasticity
In the nervous system, this refers to change, flexibility, or adaptation, usually in response to an experience or learning.
Dualism
The belief that the body is physical but the mind (or soul) is not.
Monism
The belief that the world consists only of matter and energy and that the mind is a phenomenon produced by the workings of the nervous system.
Doctrine of specific nerve energies
Müller’s conclusion that, because all nerve fibers carry the same type of message, sensory information must be specified by the particular nerve fibers that are active.
Broca’s Area
This region of the brain is named for French surgeon Paul Broca, who discovered that damage to a part of the left side of the brain disrupted a person’s ability to speak.
Epigenetics
Changes to gene expression induced by environmental factors.
Neoteny
A slowing of the process of maturation, allowing more time for growth; an important factor in the development of large brains.
Neuroethics
An interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding implications of and developing best practices in ethics for neuroscience research.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord.
Myasthenia gravis
Grave muscle weakness
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.
Nerves
Bundles of individual neurons contained within a protective membrane; that relay sensory to the CNS from the body and relay motor information from the CNS to the rest of the body.
Interneuron
A neuron located entirely within the central nervous system.
Synapse
A junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron.
Axoplasmic transport
An active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
Anterograde
traveling In a direction along an axon from the cell body toward the terminal buttons.
Retrograde
Traveling In a direction along an axon from the terminal buttons toward the cell body
Myelin sheath
sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons.
Neurotransmitter
A chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron.
Membrane
A structure consisting principally of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles.
Cytoskeleton
Formed of microtubules and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a cohesive mass that gives a cell its shape.
Microtubule
A long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell.
Cytoplasm
The viscous, semiliquid substance contained in the interior of a cell.
Nucleus
A structure in the central region of a cell, containing the chromosomes.
Chromosome
A strand of DNA, with associated proteins, found in the nucleus; carries genetic information.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A long, complex macromolecule consisting of two interconnected helical strands; along with associated proteins, strands of DNA constitute the chromosomes.
Gene
The functional unit of the chromosome, which directs synthesis of one or more proteins.
Enzyme
A molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts.
Mitochondria
Organelles that are responsible for extracting energy from nutrients.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
A molecule of prime importance to cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy.
Glia
The supporting cells of the central nervous system.
Astrocyte
A glial cell that provides support for neurons of the central nervous system, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates the chemical composition of the extracellular fluid.
Phagocytosis
The process by which cells engulf and digest other cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration.
Oligodendrocyte
A type of glial cell in the central nervous system that forms myelin sheaths.
Node of Ranvier
A naked portion of a myelinated axon between adjacent oligodendroglia or Schwann cells.
Microglia
The smallest of glial cells; they act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading microorganisms.
Schwann cell
A cell in the peripheral nervous system that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one segment of its myelin sheath.
Blood–brain barrier
A semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain’s capillaries.
Area postrema
A region of the medulla where the blood–brain barrier is weak; poisons can be detected there and can initiate vomiting.
Membrane potential
The electrical charge across a cell membrane; the difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell.
Resting potential
The membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approximately ∙70 mV in many neurons.
Hyperpolarization
An increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting potential.
Depolarization
Reduction (toward zero) of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential.
Threshold of excitation
The value of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action potential.
Action potential
The brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
Ion
A charged molecule. Cations are positively charged, and anions are negatively charged.
Electrostatic pressure
The attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign.
Intracellular fluid
The fluid contained within cells.
Extracellular fluid
Body fluids located outside of cells.
Sodium–potassium transporter
A protein found in the membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell.
Ion channel
A specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells.
Voltage-dependent ion channel
An ion channel that opens or closes according to the value of the membrane potential.
All-or-none law
The principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber.
Rate law
The principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires.
Saltatory conduction
Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.
Postsynaptic potential
Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
Binding site
The location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds.
Ligand
A chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.
Dendritic spine
A small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse.
Presynaptic membrane
The membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane and through which the neurotransmitter is released
Postsynaptic membrane
The cellmembrane opposite the terminal button in
a synapse; the membrane of the cell that
receives the message.
Synaptic vesicle
A small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter.
Postsynaptic receptor
A receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitter-dependent ion
channel
An ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor.
Ionotropic receptor
A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
Metabotropic receptor
A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
G protein
A protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor.
Second messenger
A chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell.
Excitatory
postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)
An excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP)
An inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
Reuptake
The reentry of a neurotransmitter released from a terminal button back through its membrane. This process terminates the postsynaptic potential.
Enzymatic deactivation
The destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release—for example, the destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase.
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
The enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is released from the terminal buttons. This action terminates the postsynaptic potential.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the peripheral nervous system; responsible for muscular contraction.
Neural integration
The process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
Autoreceptor
A receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron.
Presynaptic inhibition
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
Presynaptic facilitation
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
Neuromodulator
A naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid.
Peptide
A chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Most neuromodulators, and some hormones, consist of peptide molecules.
Hormone
A chemical substance that is released by an endocrine gland that has effects on target cells in other organs.
Endocrine gland
A gland that releases chemical messengers into the extracellular fluid around capillaries and hence into the bloodstream.
Target cell
The type of cell that is directly affected by a hormone or other chemical signal.
Organic Anions (A-)
negative charge (anion) and only found inside of the neuron. cannot pass through the cell membrane (they are stuck there) this contributes to the negative charge.
Potassium ions (K+)
positive charge (cation) and found mostly inside the neuron. Diffusion pushes it out of the neuron, but electrostatic pressure pushes it in (outside of the neuron is positive and like charges repel)
Chloride ions (CI -)
negative charge (anion) and found mostly outside the neuron. Diffusion pushes it into the neuron. But electrostatic pressure pushes it out (inside is negative and like charges repel)
Sodium ions (Na+)
positive charge (cation) and found mostly outside the neuron. Diffusion pushes it into the neuron as does electrostatic pressure (inside of the neuron is positive opposite charges attract)
The sodium potassium pump
the cell membrane isn’t very permeable to sodium, the pump pushes sodium out of the cell. for every 3 sodium ions that get pumped out 2 potassium ions go back in.
Axodendritic synapse
attaches to the dendritic membrane of the receiving cell (smooth dendrite or dendritic spine)
Axosomatic synapse
attaches to the somatic membrane of the receiving cell
Axoaxonic synapse
attaches to the terminal button of the receiving cell
Sodium (Na+) ion channels
opening = excitatory postsynaptic potentials
Potassium (K+) ion channels
opening = inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Chloride (Cl-) ion channels
opening = either nothing or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Calcium (Ca2+) ion channels
opening = excitatory postsynaptic potentials, and more
Opening calcium ion channels activates special enzymes which cause biochemical and structural changes in the postsynaptic neuron.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
A clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
Neuraxis
An imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the central nervous system, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain.
Rostral or anterior
“Toward the beak”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the front of the face.
Caudal or Posterior
“Toward the tail”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along the neuraxis away from the front of the face.
Dorsal
“Toward the back”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back.
Ventral
“Toward the belly”; with respecto the central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body.
Lateral
Toward the side of the body, away from the middle.
Medial
Toward the middle of the body, away from the side.
Ipsilateral
Located on the same side of the body.
Contralateral
Located on the opposite side of the body.
Cerebral cortex
The outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
Frontal section
A slice through the brain parallel to the forehead.
Horizontal section or cross section (transverse plane)
A slice through the brain parallel to the ground. a slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis.
Sagittal section
side view, A slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground.
Midsagittal plane
The plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into two symmetrical halves.
Meninges
The three layers of tissue that encase the central nervous system: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater.
Dura mater
The outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible.
Arachnoid membrane
The middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater.
Pia mater
The layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain; thin and delicate.
Subarachnoid space
The fluid-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater.
Ventricle
One of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Lateral ventricle
One of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon.
Third ventricle
The ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon.
Cerebral aqueduct
A narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon.
Fourth ventricle
The ventricle located between the cerebellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of the metencephalon.
Choroid plexus
The highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid.
Arachnoid granulation
Small projections of the arachnoid membrane through the dura mater into the superior sagittal sinus; CSF flows through them to be reabsorbed into the blood supply.
Forebrain
The most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.
Cerebral hemisphere
One of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex.
Cerebrum
Consists of the two cerebral hemispheres.
Subcortical region
The region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface.
Sulcus
A groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure.
Fissure
A major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus.
Gyrus
A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures.
Frontal lobe
The anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
Parietal lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
Temporal lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes.
Occipital lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.
Primary visual cortex
The region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system.
Calcarine fissure
A fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.
Primary somatosensory cortex
The region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system.
Primary auditory cortex
The region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system.
Central sulcus
The sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
Lateral fissure
The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.
Insular cortex
A sunken region of the cerebral cortex that is normally covered by the rostral superior temporal lobe and caudal inferior frontal lobe. Helps to process taste
information.
Sensory association cortex
Those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of the primary sensory cortex.
Primary motor cortex
The region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles.
Motor association cortex
The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the premotor cortex. helps control the primary motor cortex
Prefrontal cortex
The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex. involved in planning and strategy
Corpus callosum
A large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain.
Limbic cortex
Phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge (“ limbus”) of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system.
Cingulate gyrus
A strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemi- spheres, just above the corpus callosum.
Limbic system
A group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting fiber bundles. involved in learning, memory and emotions
Hippocampus
A forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system. learning and memory processes
Amygdala
A structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system. used for emotion processing
Fornix
A fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus
Mammillary bodies
A protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system.
Basal ganglia
A group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, important for motor control.
Nucleus
An identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the central nervous system.
Diencephalon
A region of the forebrain surrounding containing the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
Thalamus
The largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the hypothalamus; acts as a relay station that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive information from it. contains the lateral geniculate nucleus
Lateral geniculate nucleus
A group of cell bodies within the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex.
Medial geniculate nucleus
A group of cell bodies within the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex.
Ventrolateral nucleus
A nucleus of the thalamus that receives input from the cerebellum and sends to the primary motor cortex.
Hypothalamus
Part of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in regulation of the autonomic nervous system, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands. controls the endorine system. important for survival behaciours (reproduction, fighting, eating)
Optic chiasm
An X-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the base of the brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland.
Anterior pituitary gland
an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones. homeones that can influence brain and behaviour
Posterior pituitary gland
contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus. doesn’t make its own hormones. one hormone is oxytocin which is used for pair bonding
Neurosecretory cell
A neuron that secretes a hormone or hormonelike substance.
Midbrain
The mesencephalon; the central of the three major divisions of the brain.
Mesencephalon
Makes up the midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes the tectum and the tegmentum.
Tectum
The dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi.
Superior colliculi
part of the visual system/visual reflexes
Inferior colliculi
part of the auditory system
Brain stem
The “stem” of the brain, connecting the brain to the spinal cord. from the medulla to the midbrain, excluding the cerebellum.
Tegmentum
includes the periaqueductal gray matter (sequences of movements for species typical behaviour), reticular formation (sleep, arousal attention, muscle tone, movement/reflexes), red nucleus and substantia nigra (motor system). also controls some eye movement
Reticular formation
A large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon. involved in sleep/arousal, attention, muscle tone, movement/reflexes
Periaqueductal gray matter
The region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors.
Red nucleus
A large nucleus of the midbrain that receives input from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord.
Substantia nigra
A darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the basal ganglia. involved in motor system
Hindbrain
The most caudal of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon.
Cerebellum
A major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar hemispheres containing deep cerebellar nuclei, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system. little brain. integrates sensory amd motor information for smooth coordinated movment
injury could lead to jerky and uncoordinated movement
Deep cerebellar nuclei
Nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain.
Pons
The region of the metencephalon, ventral to the cerebellum.
part of the reticular formation linked to sleep/arousal
also relays information from the cortex to the cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
The most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon,connects to the spinal cord. important in controlling vitals (cardiovascular system, respiraiton, skeletal muscle tone)
Spinal cord
The cord of nervous tissue that extends down from the medulla. used to distribute motor fibres to the effector ograns of the body (glands and muscles) also collects somatosensory information (pressure, touch) to pass to the brain
protected by the vertebrral column (24 vertebrae interlocking bones)
Spinal root
A bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve of the peripheral nervous system.
Dorsal root
The spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers.
Ventral root
The spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers.
Cranial nerve
A peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain.
12 pairs some have sensory functions, some motor generally used for the head and neck region
Vagus nerve
The largest of the cranial nerves, includes both sensory and motor fibres. helps function the autonomic nervous system and regulates many organs (digestion, heart rate)
Spinal nerve
A peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord.
31 pairs connected to the muscles and organs of the body
afferent axons - arriving information
Efferent axons - Exiting the CNS
Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the central nervous system.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The portion of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s vegetative functions. consists of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls fight or flight or freeze
the ganglia are close to the spinal cord for quicker response
- dilates pupils
- inhibits salivaiton
- accelerates heart
- facilitates breating
- inhibits digestion
- stimulates release of glucose
- secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
- relaxes bladder
- inhibits sex organs
Parasympathetic nervous system
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls rest and relax
the ganglia are close to their effectors (slower response)
- constricts pupils
- stimulates salivaiton
- slows heart
- constricts breating
- stimulates digestion
- stimulates gallbladder
- contracts bladder
- stimulates sex organs
Psychopharmacology
The study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system and behavior.
Drugs
An exogenous chemical not necessary for normal cellular functioning that significantly alters the functions of certain cells of the body when taken in relatively low doses.
Drug effects
Observable changes in an individual’s physiology and/or behavior.
Tolerance
A decrease in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly.
Sites of action
The locations where drug molecules interact with molecules on or in cells to affect biochemical processes.
Pharmacokinetics
The process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed within the body, metabolized, and excreted. (ADME)
Intravenous (IV) injection
Injection of a substance directly into a vein.
Lipid solubility
The ability of fat-based molecules to pass through cell membranes.
Intramuscular (IM) injection
Injection of a substance into a muscle.
Intraperitoneal (IP) injection
Injection of a substance into the peritoneal cavity—the space that surrounds the stomach, intestines, liver, and other abdominal organs.
Subcutaneous (SC) injection
Injection of a substance into the space beneath the skin.
Sublingual administration
Administration of a substance by placing it beneath the tongue.
Oral administration
Administration of a substance into the mouth so that it is swallowed.
Inhalation
Administration of a vaporous substance into the lungs.
Topical administration
Administration of a substance directly onto the skin or mucous membrane. (applying sunscreen or snorting cocaine)
Insufflation
a topical adminisatration. injecting a substance by sniffing or snorting; drug is absorbed through the mucous membranes of the nose.
Therapeutic index
The ratio between the dose that produces the desired effect and the dose that produces toxic effects (tested with equal groups 50%)
Dose-response curve
A graph of the magnitude of an effect of a drug as a function of the amount of drug administered.
Affinity
The readiness with which two molecules join together (how well they join).
Sensitization
An increase in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly (opposite of tollorance).
Withdrawal symptom
The appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by a drug when the drug is administered repeatedly and then suddenly no longer taken.
Physical dependence
Compensatory changes following repeated use of a drug that result in withdrawal symptoms when the drug is no longer taken.
Placebo
An inert substance that is given to an organism in lieu of a physiologically active drug; used experimentally to control for the effects of mere administration of a drug.
Antagonist
A drug that opposes or inhibits the effects of a neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.
Agonist
A drug that facilitates the effects of a neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.
Direct agonist
A drug that binds with and activates a receptor.
Receptor blocker or direct antagonist
A drug that binds with a receptor but does not activate it; prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor.
Noncompetitive binding
Binding of a drug to a site on a receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
Indirect antagonist
A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and interferes with the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
Indirect agonist
A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and facilitates the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
Glutamate
An amino acid; the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. plays a role in learning and memory. if not removed from synapes excitotoxity occurs (cell damage)
removed by reuptake and enzyme deactivaiton (Glutamine synthase (is the enzyme))
3 ionatropic and 1 metabotropic ion channels
NMDA receptor
A specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a calcium channel that is normally blocked by Mg2+ ions; has several other binding sites.
needs to be slightly depolarised to remove the magnesium ion. at the same time needs glutamate and glycine to attached to its binding site
Ketamine
A drug that binds with a non competitive binding site of the NMDA receptor and serves as an indirect antagonist.
PCP
Phencyclidine; a drug that binds with the PCP binding site of the NMDA receptor and serves as an indirect antagonist.
GABA
An amino acid; the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
receptors are ionotropic and control chloride ion channels (GABAa)
lack of GABA is related to seizure disorders
removed by reuptake and enzyme deactivaiton
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory formation, REM sleep and dreaming in the CNS. And Muscle contraction in the PNS
once in the synapse removed by enzyme deactivaiton then parts are reuptaked (Acetylcholinesterease (AChE))
inhibitors treat myasthenia gravis (muscle weakness autoimmune disorder)
botox prevents the release of ACh stoping muscle contractions (therefore wrinkles)
2 receptors
Nicotinic receptors - ionotropic which activates when nicotine attaches to a binding site
Muscarinic receptors - metabotropic which activates when muscurine (mushrooms) attach to a binding site
Monoamine
Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine and histamines. all with a wide range of functions
Dopamine (DA)
A neurotransmitter. has inhibitory and excitory effects. known happy drug. impacts voluntary movment, learning, attention, planning and problem solving in the CNS
requires 2 steps to produce
removed by reuptake or enzyme deactivation
(cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and ritalin inhibit reuptake)
Mesocortical system
A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the prefrontal cortex (pumping dopamine).
used for complex cognition/executive functions (memory, planning)
Mesolimbic system
A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus (pumping dopamine).
used for emotion reward and memory
Nigrostriatal system
Dopamine neurons have cell bodies in the substantia nigra (midbrain) and axons projecting to the neostiatum of the basal ganglia (forbrain)
used for movement and motor control (related to parkinsons disease)
l-DOPA
The levorotatory form of DOPA; the precursor of the catecholamines; often used to treat Parkinson’s disease because of its effect as a dopamine agonist.
Parkinson’s disease
A neurological disease characterized by tremors, rigidity of the limbs, poor balance, and difficulty in initiating movements; caused by degeneration of the nigrostriatal system.
Methamphetamine
An antagonist at dopamine and norepinephrine transporters that causes them to run in reverse, releasing these neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Cocaine
A drug that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine.
Epinephrine
a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; serves also as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
Monoamine oxidase (MAO)
A class of enzymes that destroy the monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
Norepinephrine (NE)
a neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
important for vigilance (in the locus coeruleus) (wakefulness) in the CNS and Autonomic nervous system in the PNS
synthesized from dopamine (in synaptic vescles rather than the terminal buttons like most neurotransmitters)
removed by enzyme deactivaiton then parts are reuptaked
Locus coeruleus
A dark colored group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the pons near the rostral end of the floor of the fourth ventricle. modulate arousal states and adaptive behavior
Serotonin (5-HT)
An indolamine neurotransmitter; also called 5-hydroxytryptamine.
Axonal varicosity
An enlarged region along the length of an axon that contains synaptic vesicles and releases a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator.
Morphine
Agonist for opiate receptor.
Fluoxetine
A drug that inhibits the reuptake of sertonin 5-HT.
MDMA
A drug that serves as a noradrenergic and serotonergic agonist, also known as “ecstasy”; has excitatory and hallucinogenic effects.
Histamine
A neurotransmitter that plays an important role in stimulating wakefulness.
Opium
Agonist for opiate receptor.
Diphenhydramine
An antihistamine drug; antagonist at histamine receptors.
Endogenous opioid
A class of peptides secreted by the brain that act as opiates.
Heroin
Agonist for opiate receptor.
Oxycodone
Agonist for opiate receptor.
Naloxone
A drug that blocks opiate receptors.
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
The active ingredient in marijuana; activates CB1 receptors in the brain.
Endocannabinoid
A lipid; an endogenous ligand for cannabinoid receptors, which also bind with THC, the active ingredient of marijuana.
Anandamide
The first cannabinoid to be discovered and probably the most important one.
Methadone
Agonist for opiate receptor.
Biological Psychology combines knowledge from which of the following disciplines
psychology
biology
physiology
chemistry
computer science
Hippocrates
that mental capacities could be linked to Brain
Functionalism
useful functions for an organism
Aristotle
heart = mind (brain cools the passions of the heart)
Galen
linked mind to brain studying brains of cattle sheep pigs cats dogs weasels monkeys and apes
Descartes
argued behaviour worked like a machine
Coined the term reflexes. Some behaviour is separate from the mind
Pineal gland - mind-body interactions
Luigi galvani
electrical stimulation on frog nerves showed muscles contract even when not attached to the rest of the body
Johannes Muller
nerve energies - different parts of the brain get information from different nerves (doctorine of specific nerve energys)
Flourens
experimental ablation (removing brains from animals to study results)
Broca
studied brain injuries
Cajal
used staining techniques to understand neurons
alleles
pairs of genes within chromosomes
Ethics in biological psychology
Governing principles
- A clear justification for the use of animals must be made
- Steps should be taken to enhance animal well-being
- Any potenital harm towards animals must be minimised
- Having high levels of research intergrity
- Ensuring that the three R’s of animal research are followed (reduce, replace, refine)
- Being aware of one’s responsibilities when conducting animal research
left hemisphere is associated with
analysis
right = synthesis
