definitions Flashcards
Hypotheses
Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some investigation.
null hypotheses
these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
One-tailed (directional) hypotheses
state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses
these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship.
volunteer sample
Volunteer sample: where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
opportunity sampling
Opportunity sampling: also known as convenience sampling, uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
random sampling
Random sampling: when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
systematic sampling
Systematic sampling: when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
stratified sampling
Stratified sampling: when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
operationalization
Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.
independent groups design
Independent design (between-groups design): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization.
matched pairs design
Matched participants design: each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
repeated measures
Repeated measures design (within groups): each participant appears in both groups, so that there are
exactly the same participants in each group.
counterbalancing
Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants.
case studies
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.
correlation
when two variables have an indirect relationship
can be positive or negative
overt observation
Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
covert observation
Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
controlled observation
Controlled: behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
participant observation
Participant: the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.
non-participant observation
Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. The observation of participants’ behaviour is from a distance
natural observation
Natural: Here, spontaneous behaviour is recorded in a natural setting.
pilot study
A pilot study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key steps in a future, full-scale project.
primary data
Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
secondary data
Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.
face validity
Face validity: does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
concurrent validity
Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
ecological validity
Ecological validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
