Definitions Flashcards
Experiment
An experiment is a systematic procedure carried out to test a hypothesis by manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring the resultant changes in the dependent variables.
What is a quasi experiment/ natural experiment?
An experiment conducted in natural conditions, however the research is unable to manipulate the IV and therefore examines the effect of a naturally occurring variable on the DV.
What is a field experiment?
An experiment conducted in a natural environment. The IV is manipulated and the DV is measured. Ppts are often unaware that they are being researched.
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment conducted under controlled, artificial conditions. The IV is manipulated and the DV is measured.
What is a CAT scan?
A set of x-rays combined together to form 2D or 3D images of the area of the brain that is being scanned.
What is a PET scan?
The patient is given a radioactive glucose (tracer). Areas of the brain that appear to be more active are the areas require the most glucose. The detectors in the scanner can highlight the most active areas of the brain, allowing an in-depth image of what the brain activity is like.
What is participant observation?
The researcher takes part in the research, joining in with those being observed. The researcher does not reveal who they are.
Internal validity
The extent to which the study measures what it intends to measure.
External validity
Whether the study paints a true picture of real-life behaviours (mundane realism) and would apply to different places, times, and people.
Internal reliability
The extent to which research is consistent within itself.
External reliability
The extent to which the research produces consistent results over several occasions.
What are the four levels of measurement?
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
What is nominal data?
The level of measurement that shows categories of data represented by frequencies and the data sets have no relative numerical value.
E.g. boys and girls.
What is ordinal data?
The level of measurement where data can be placed into ascending or descending order, but the intervals between data are not necessarily equal.
E.g. the times for first, second, and third place in a race.
What is interval data?
The level of measurement that has equal numerical intervals between scores.
E.g. temperature; the difference between 1 and 2 degrees is the same as the difference between 21 and 22 degrees.
What is ratio data?
The level of measurement that has equal intervals between scores and has an absolute or true zero point.
E.g. speed (mph)
What is content analysis?
A type of observational study where written or verbal material is analysed. The researcher creates a coding system, which breaks down the information into categories and a tally is taken each time the material fits.
What is a structured interview?
The interviewer has a pre-prepared set of questions that are asked in a fixed order.
What is a semi-structured interview?
Begins with a general aim and a few pre-determined questions but subsequent questions develop based on the answers given by the participant.
What is a questionnaire?
A set of written questions where answers are analysed by the researcher.
What is a correlation?
Analyses the relationship or association between two continuous variables (co-variables). The closer the coefficient is to 0, the weaker the coefficient. The closer the coefficient is to 1 (be that +1 or -1) the stronger it is.
What is a case study?
An in-depth study of a unique individual, small group or event. Uses many different research methods, such as interviews, questionnaires, or observations in order to get the required depth. Most data collected is qualitative, but it can sometimes be quantitative. It is a holistic study and is usually longitudinal.
What is self-report?
Methods that involve the participant reporting information about themselves. They can include interviews, questionnaires, inventories, diaries.
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be measured numerically by the psychologist, so that statistical analysis can be completed e.g. scores on an IQ test.
What is qualitative data?
A type of data that can be observed, but not measured numerically. It usually takes the form of words, thoughts and feelings, and is difficult to analyse, e.g. a participant’s feelings.
What are primary sources?
Information/data that are directly collected by the researcher first-hand e.g. they collect data through a questionnaire, experiment, interviews etc. for their research.
What are secondary sources?
Information sources/data that have not been directly collected/created by the researcher e.g. use of methods such as a content analysis of existing data, or literature reviews.
What is a longitudinal study?
A study conducted over a long period of time. Participants are assessed on two or more occasions as they get older. This allows the researcher to investigate any long-term effects (e.g. how memory gradually decreases with age).
What is a cross-sectional study?
Where one group of participants representing one section of society (e.g. young people or working-class people) are compared with participants from another group (e.g. old people or middle-class people).
What does it mean if a psychologist is ideographic?
Psychologists want to discover what makes each of us unique.
What does it mean if a psychologist is nomothetic?
Psychologists are concerned with similarities that we share, establishing ‘laws’ or generalisations.
What does it mean if a psychologist is interactionist?
Psychologists acknowledge that biological, social and learning may all play a role.
What is a correlation?
Analyses the relationship or association between two continuous variables (co-variables). The closer the coefficient is to 0, the weaker the coefficient. The closer the coefficient is to 1 (be that +1 or -1) the stronger it is.
What is random sampling?
Random sampling is a technique in psychology where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study, reducing bias and increasing the generalisability of results.
What is snowball sampling?
Snowball sampling is a technique where existing participants recruit new participants from their social network. This method is often employed when the population is hard to reach or identify.
What is volunteer sampling?
Volunteer sampling, also known as self-selection, involves participants volunteering to be part of the study. This method may introduce biases as those who volunteer may differ from those who do not.
Opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling, involves selecting participants who are readily available or easily accessible to the researcher.
For example, surveying students in a university cafeteria during lunchtime would be an opportunity sample.
Deception
Deception refers to deliberately misleading, or falsely informing participants about the nature of research.
Event Sampling
An observational sampling technique, where participants are observed by a psychologist who is looking to record a specific behaviour (event). The event/ behaviour will be recorded each time it occurs to create a total score. For example, a psychologist may note down each time a participant demonstrates an
aggressive behaviour to create an overall aggression score within a set time period i.e. one hour.
Strength and weakness of repeated measures.
S: Participant variables are controlled
W: Order effects: practice and boredom
Strength and weakness of independent groups.
S: Order effects are controlled
W: Participant variables
Strength and weakness of match pairs.
S: Order effects and participant variables are controlled
W: takes a lot of time to organise and research
Hypothesis
A testable and falsifiable statement that proposes an explanation for a relationship between variables in a scientific investigation.
Directional Hypothesis
States the direction of the predicted difference between conditions or groups of participants.
Non-directional Hypothesis
Predicts the presence of a relationship or effect between variables in a research study without specifying the direction of that relationship.
Null Hypothesis
A statement asserting that there is no significant difference, effect, or relationship between variables in a research study, serving as a baseline assumption to be tested and potentially rejected.
Demand Characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of the study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.
Pilot Study
A small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.
Confederate
An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed on how to behave by the investigator.
Explain the role of an ethics committee
*Provides a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results.
* Making suggestions on how the research can be completed in an ethical way.
* For socially sensitive research, the committee may propose to the researcher(s) advice on how best to publish their results so as to reduce risk to status, values and beliefs.
Stratified Sampling
The population is divided into subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics, and then random samples are independently drawn from each stratum to ensure representative inclusion of diverse groups.
Describe two ethical guidelines that must be followed by psychologists when working with animals.
- Replacing the use of animals e.g. only using actual animals if no other form of testing (such as computer simulation etc.) could be used.
- Choice of species and strain e.g. using only species that are ethically and scientifically
suitable to the subject matter being studied. - Number of animals e.g. use only the smallest number of animals that are necessary to accomplish the research goals.
- Procedures e.g. ensuring any tasks/research does not cause unnecessary death, harm or illness to the animal.
- Type of animal e.g. use of only captive bred animals wherever possible.
- Care of the animal e.g. housing of animal whilst not being studied and humane
disposal of animals after use.
Describe one disadvantage of non-participant observations
- The researcher may not record all information accurately (unintentionally), leading to reliability and internal validity issues due to the subjective nature of observations.
- Researcher bias can be a problem, especially if categories are not operationalised before the study takes place and the researcher is aware of the aims of the study.
Concurrent validity
Validating a measurement by comparing it with an established measurement that has known validity.
Content validity
Objectively checks the method of measuring behaviour is accurate and decides whether it is a fair test that achieves the aims of the study.
Face validity
The test appears to measure what it claims to, and hence is subjective.
Inter-rater reliability
Where 2 or more psychologists produce consistent results by using a standardised procedure or an agreed coding system.
Test-retest reliability
Testing and retesting the same participant over time, with the same test, and comparing their scores. If the scores are the same, the test has external reliability.
Split-half reliability
Splitting a participant’s test in half and seeing if s/he got the same or similar scores on the two halves. If so, internal reliability is high; if not, it is low and individual questions would need to be redesigned.
Difference studies
A kind of quasi-experiment where the independent variable does not vary as it is a condition which exists.
Researcher bias
Anything that the researcher does that has an effect on the participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This can be direct (direct interaction) or indirect (design of the study).
Generalisation
Applying the findings of a particular study to a target population.
Sampling frame
The source material from which a sample is drawn.
Target population
The group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying
Weakness of conducting research online
- Consent issues
- Identification
What shape is normal distribution
Bell
What shape is positive skew distribution
Right foot
What shape is negative skew distribution
Left foot
Case study
An in-depth examination of a single individual, group, event over a period of time, used to explore causation and/or correlation.
Cross-sectional study
Observational research that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time to identify patterns and relationships between variables.
Bit sketch
Standard deviation
Standard deviation is a statistical measure that quantifies the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values, indicating how much the individual values typically deviate from the mean of the data set.
What is the range and a weakness
Range is a statistical measure that represents the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set, providing a measure of the spread or dispersion of the values.
- Sensitive to extreme scores
- Not suitable for small samples
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the ethical and legal principle that requires the protection of personal, sensitive, or proprietary information from unauthorized access, disclosure, or use, ensuring that such information is only accessible to those who are authorized and have a legitimate need to know.
Deception
Withholding information or providing false information to participants about the nature of the study, typically to prevent bias and ensure the integrity of the results, but it must be justified, minimized, and followed by debriefing to address any potential harm.
