Definitions

Question 1

Experiment

Answer 1

An experiment is a systematic procedure carried out to test a hypothesis by manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring the resultant changes in the dependent variables.

Question 2

What is a quasi experiment/ natural experiment?

Answer 2

An experiment conducted in natural conditions, however the research is unable to manipulate the IV and therefore examines the effect of a naturally occurring variable on the DV.

Question 3

What is a field experiment?

Answer 3

An experiment conducted in a natural environment. The IV is manipulated and the DV is measured. Ppts are often unaware that they are being researched.

Question 4

What is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 4

An experiment conducted under controlled, artificial conditions. The IV is manipulated and the DV is measured.

Question 5

What is a CAT scan?

Answer 5

A set of x-rays combined together to form 2D or 3D images of the area of the brain that is being scanned.

Question 6

What is a PET scan?

Answer 6

The patient is given a radioactive glucose (tracer). Areas of the brain that appear to be more active are the areas require the most glucose. The detectors in the scanner can highlight the most active areas of the brain, allowing an in-depth image of what the brain activity is like.

Question 7

What is participant observation?

Answer 7

The researcher takes part in the research, joining in with those being observed. The researcher does not reveal who they are.

Question 8

Internal validity

Answer 8

The extent to which the study measures what it intends to measure.

Question 9

External validity

Answer 9

Whether the study paints a true picture of real-life behaviours (mundane realism) and would apply to different places, times, and people.

Question 10

Internal reliability

Answer 10

The extent to which research is consistent within itself.

Question 11

External reliability

Answer 11

The extent to which the research produces consistent results over several occasions.

Question 12

What are the four levels of measurement?

Answer 12

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

Question 13

What is nominal data?

Answer 13

The level of measurement that shows categories of data represented by frequencies and the data sets have no relative numerical value.

E.g. boys and girls.

Question 14

What is ordinal data?

Answer 14

The level of measurement where data can be placed into ascending or descending order, but the intervals between data are not necessarily equal.

E.g. the times for first, second, and third place in a race.

Question 15

What is interval data?

Answer 15

The level of measurement that has equal numerical intervals between scores.

E.g. temperature; the difference between 1 and 2 degrees is the same as the difference between 21 and 22 degrees.

Question 16

What is ratio data?

Answer 16

The level of measurement that has equal intervals between scores and has an absolute or true zero point.

E.g. speed (mph)

Question 17

What is content analysis?

Answer 17

A type of observational study where written or verbal material is analysed. The researcher creates a coding system, which breaks down the information into categories and a tally is taken each time the material fits.

Question 18

What is a structured interview?

Answer 18

The interviewer has a pre-prepared set of questions that are asked in a fixed order.

Question 19

What is a semi-structured interview?

Answer 19

Begins with a general aim and a few pre-determined questions but subsequent questions develop based on the answers given by the participant.

Question 20

What is a questionnaire?

Answer 20

A set of written questions where answers are analysed by the researcher.

Question 21

What is a correlation?

Answer 21

Analyses the relationship or association between two continuous variables (co-variables). The closer the coefficient is to 0, the weaker the coefficient. The closer the coefficient is to 1 (be that +1 or -1) the stronger it is.

Question 22

What is a case study?

Answer 22

An in-depth study of a unique individual, small group or event. Uses many different research methods, such as interviews, questionnaires, or observations in order to get the required depth. Most data collected is qualitative, but it can sometimes be quantitative. It is a holistic study and is usually longitudinal.

Question 23

What is self-report?

Answer 23

Methods that involve the participant reporting information about themselves. They can include interviews, questionnaires, inventories, diaries.

Question 24

What is quantitative data?

Answer 24

Data that can be measured numerically by the psychologist, so that statistical analysis can be completed e.g. scores on an IQ test.

Question 25

What is qualitative data?

Answer 25

A type of data that can be observed, but not measured numerically. It usually takes the form of words, thoughts and feelings, and is difficult to analyse, e.g. a participant’s feelings.

Question 26

What are primary sources?

Answer 26

Information/data that are directly collected by the researcher first-hand e.g. they collect data through a questionnaire, experiment, interviews etc. for their research.

Question 27

What are secondary sources?

Answer 27

Information sources/data that have not been directly collected/created by the researcher e.g. use of methods such as a content analysis of existing data, or literature reviews.

Question 28

What is a longitudinal study?

Answer 28

A study conducted over a long period of time. Participants are assessed on two or more occasions as they get older. This allows the researcher to investigate any long-term effects (e.g. how memory gradually decreases with age).

Question 29

What is a cross-sectional study?

Answer 29

Where one group of participants representing one section of society (e.g. young people or working-class people) are compared with participants from another group (e.g. old people or middle-class people).

Question 30

What does it mean if a psychologist is ideographic?

Answer 30

Psychologists want to discover what makes each of us unique.

Question 31

What does it mean if a psychologist is nomothetic?

Answer 31

Psychologists are concerned with similarities that we share, establishing ‘laws’ or generalisations.

Question 32

What does it mean if a psychologist is interactionist?

Answer 32

Psychologists acknowledge that biological, social and learning may all play a role.

Question 33

What is a correlation?

Answer 33

Analyses the relationship or association between two continuous variables (co-variables). The closer the coefficient is to 0, the weaker the coefficient. The closer the coefficient is to 1 (be that +1 or -1) the stronger it is.

Question 34

What is random sampling?

Answer 34

Random sampling is a technique in psychology where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study, reducing bias and increasing the generalisability of results.

Question 35

What is snowball sampling?

Answer 35

Snowball sampling is a technique where existing participants recruit new participants from their social network. This method is often employed when the population is hard to reach or identify.

Question 36

What is volunteer sampling?

Answer 36

Volunteer sampling, also known as self-selection, involves participants volunteering to be part of the study. This method may introduce biases as those who volunteer may differ from those who do not.

Question 37

Opportunity sampling?

Answer 37

Opportunity sampling, involves selecting participants who are readily available or easily accessible to the researcher. For example, surveying students in a university cafeteria during lunchtime would be an opportunity sample.

Question 38

Deception

Answer 38

Deception refers to deliberately misleading, or falsely informing participants about the nature of research.

Question 39

Event Sampling

Answer 39

An observational sampling technique, where participants are observed by a psychologist who is looking to record a specific behaviour (event). The event/ behaviour will be recorded each time it occurs to create a total score. For example, a psychologist may note down each time a participant demonstrates an aggressive behaviour to create an overall aggression score within a set time period i.e. one hour.

Question 40

Strength and weakness of repeated measures.

Answer 40

S: Participant variables are controlled W: Order effects: practice and boredom

Question 41

Strength and weakness of independent groups.

Answer 41

S: Order effects are controlled W: Participant variables

Question 42

Strength and weakness of match pairs.

Answer 42

S: Order effects and participant variables are controlled W: takes a lot of time to organise and research

Question 43

Hypothesis

Answer 43

A testable and falsifiable statement that proposes an explanation for a relationship between variables in a scientific investigation.

Question 44

Directional Hypothesis

Answer 44

States the direction of the predicted difference between conditions or groups of participants.

Question 45

Non-directional Hypothesis

Answer 45

Predicts the presence of a relationship or effect between variables in a research study without specifying the direction of that relationship.

Question 46

Null Hypothesis

Answer 46

A statement asserting that there is no significant difference, effect, or relationship between variables in a research study, serving as a baseline assumption to be tested and potentially rejected.

Question 47

Demand Characteristics

Answer 47

A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of the study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.

Question 48

Pilot Study

Answer 48

A small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.

Question 49

Confederate

Answer 49

An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed on how to behave by the investigator.

Question 50

Explain the role of an ethics committee

Answer 50

*Provides a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results. * Making suggestions on how the research can be completed in an ethical way. * For socially sensitive research, the committee may propose to the researcher(s) advice on how best to publish their results so as to reduce risk to status, values and beliefs.

Question 51

Stratified Sampling

Answer 51

The population is divided into subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics, and then random samples are independently drawn from each stratum to ensure representative inclusion of diverse groups.

Question 52

Describe two ethical guidelines that must be followed by psychologists when working with animals.

Answer 52

* Replacing the use of animals e.g. only using actual animals if no other form of testing (such as computer simulation etc.) could be used. * Choice of species and strain e.g. using only species that are ethically and scientifically suitable to the subject matter being studied. * Number of animals e.g. use only the smallest number of animals that are necessary to accomplish the research goals. * Procedures e.g. ensuring any tasks/research does not cause unnecessary death, harm or illness to the animal. * Type of animal e.g. use of only captive bred animals wherever possible. * Care of the animal e.g. housing of animal whilst not being studied and humane disposal of animals after use.

Question 53

Describe one disadvantage of non-participant observations

Answer 53

* The researcher may not record all information accurately (unintentionally), leading to reliability and internal validity issues due to the subjective nature of observations. * Researcher bias can be a problem, especially if categories are not operationalised before the study takes place and the researcher is aware of the aims of the study.

Question 54

Concurrent validity

Answer 54

Validating a measurement by comparing it with an established measurement that has known validity.

Question 55

Content validity

Answer 55

Objectively checks the method of measuring behaviour is accurate and decides whether it is a fair test that achieves the aims of the study.

Question 56

Face validity

Answer 56

The test appears to measure what it claims to, and hence is subjective.

Question 57

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 57

Where 2 or more psychologists produce consistent results by using a standardised procedure or an agreed coding system.

Question 58

Test-retest reliability

Answer 58

Testing and retesting the same participant over time, with the same test, and comparing their scores. If the scores are the same, the test has external reliability.

Question 59

Split-half reliability

Answer 59

Splitting a participant's test in half and seeing if s/he got the same or similar scores on the two halves. If so, internal reliability is high; if not, it is low and individual questions would need to be redesigned.

Question 60

Difference studies

Answer 60

A kind of quasi-experiment where the independent variable does not vary as it is a condition which exists.

Question 61

Researcher bias

Answer 61

Anything that the researcher does that has an effect on the participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This can be direct (direct interaction) or indirect (design of the study).

Question 62

Generalisation

Answer 62

Applying the findings of a particular study to a target population.

Question 63

Sampling frame

Answer 63

The source material from which a sample is drawn.

Question 64

Target population

Answer 64

The group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying

Question 65

Weakness of conducting research online

Answer 65

- Consent issues - Identification

Question 66

What shape is normal distribution

Answer 66

Bell

Question 67

What shape is positive skew distribution

Answer 67

Right foot

Question 68

What shape is negative skew distribution

Answer 68

Left foot

Question 69

Case study

Answer 69

An in-depth examination of a single individual, group, event over a period of time, used to explore causation and/or correlation.

Question 70

Cross-sectional study

Answer 70

Observational research that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time to identify patterns and relationships between variables. Bit sketch

Question 71

Standard deviation

Answer 71

Standard deviation is a statistical measure that quantifies the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values, indicating how much the individual values typically deviate from the mean of the data set.

Question 72

What is the range and a weakness

Answer 72

Range is a statistical measure that represents the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set, providing a measure of the spread or dispersion of the values. - Sensitive to extreme scores - Not suitable for small samples

Question 73

Confidentiality

Answer 73

Confidentiality is the ethical and legal principle that requires the protection of personal, sensitive, or proprietary information from unauthorized access, disclosure, or use, ensuring that such information is only accessible to those who are authorized and have a legitimate need to know.

Question 74

Deception

Answer 74

Withholding information or providing false information to participants about the nature of the study, typically to prevent bias and ensure the integrity of the results, but it must be justified, minimized, and followed by debriefing to address any potential harm.