Definitions Flashcards
Attribution Theory
The cognitive process by which people interpret the reasons or causes for their behaviour
Self-serving bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute success of an event/project to their own actions while attributing failure to others
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to underestimate the effects of external or situational causes of behaviour and to over estimate the effects of internal or personal causes
Trait theory
Individual behaviour can be understood by breaking behaviour patterns down into a series of traits
Basic incongruitiy thesis
What individuals what from organizations, what organizations want from individuals and how these two potentially conflicting sets of desires are harmonized
MARS model of behaviour
Motivation
Ability
Role Perception
Situational Factors
Content theories
People act based on what motivates them
Murray’s manifest needs theory
McClelland’s learned needs theory
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory
Murray’s manifest needs theory
Human behaviour is driving by the desire to satisfy needs. Primary needs are physiological. Secondary needs are psychological.
McClelland learned needs theory
Need for achievement (nAch)
Need for affiliation (nAff)
Need for power (nPow)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Human needs are arranged hierarchically. before one type of need can manifest itself, other needs must be satisfied. 5 needs:
1. physiological
2. safety and security
3. social
4. ego and esteem
5. self-actualization.
Alderfer’s ERG theory
needs move in any direction:
- existence
- relatedness
- growth
You can regress due to frustration
Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory
Motivation and satisfaction are two sets of needs.
Motivation = job content
Hygiene = job context = avoid dissatisfaction.
Self-determination theory
Explains the causes of motivation and the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.
Process theories of motivation
Try to explain why behaviours are initiated
-operant conditioning
-equity theory
- goal theory
- expectancy theory
Classical conditioning
The process whereby a stimulus-response bond is developed between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response through the repeated linking of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. Pavlov)
Operant conditioning
Measures the effects of reinforcements, or rewards on desired behaviours. People will do things for which they are rewarded and avoid doing something they are punished for
Equity theory
Motivation is affected by the outcomes we receive for our inputs compared to other people’s outcomes and inputs.
Goal theory
Goals that are clear, specific and challenging (SMART) are more motivating than vague or easy goals
Expectancy theory
We will exert much effort to perform at high levels to obtain valued outcomes
Central tendency error
Supervisors rate most of their employees within a narrow range (all 5s, all the time)
Strictness or leniency error
When a supervisor is overly strict or overly lenient in evaluations
Halo effect
Supervisor assigns the same rating for each factor being evaluated
Recency error
Focusing on an employee’s most recent behaviour in the evaluation process
Basis for reward distribution
- power (by hierarchy)
- equality (by job classification)
- social welfare (by need)
- distributive justice (by contribution)
Types of group incentive programs
- profit sharing
- gain-sharing
- skills-based incentives
-lump sum pay increases
- participative pay decisions
- flexible benefit systems
Types of rewards
- intrinsic
- extrinsic
- gain-sharing
- skill-based incentives
Types of power
- referent
- expert
- legitimate
- coercive
- reward
Tannenbaum & Schmidt Continuum
Theory of leadership. Autocratic -> participative -> free-reign
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X: assumes that the average individual dislikes work and is incapable of exercising self-direction and self-control (needs high level of leadership).
Theory Y: believes that people have creative capacities, as well as both the ability and desire to exercise self-direction and self-control (need freedom).
Great man theory
Some people are just born with the necessary attributes to be great leaders
Trait theory
Great leaders have great qualities:
- drive
- motivation to lead others
- honesty & integrity
- self-confidence
- cognitive ability
- knowledge of the business
Ohio state university approach to leadership
Consideration addresses the group’s maintenance needs through relationship behaviour
Initiates structure to address task needs.
University of Michigan approach to leadership
Job-centred behaviours
Employee-member-centred behaviour
Fiedler’s contingency model/ contingency theory
Situational theory of leadership. Leaders must assess the situation and construct a proper match of leadership style to the situation. (Match the situation to the leader that possesses those traits)
Path goal theory
Situational leadership theory. Leaders must match their style to the situation to provide relevant motivation , satisfaction and performance.
- supportive leadership
- directive leadership
- participative leadership
- achievement oriented leadership
3 types of power
Coercive: involves forcing someone to comply with one’s wishes
Utilitarian: power based on performance-reward contingencies
Normative: members believe the organization has a right to govern their behaviour
French & Raven bases of power
Referent: having desireable resources or personal traits
Expert: expertise, exceptional skill or knowledge
Legitimate: having a right to exert power in a particular domain
Reward: controlling the reward someone wants
Coercive: controlling the punishment someone does not want
Sources of conflict
Task interdependencies
Status inconsistencies
Jurisdictional ambiguities
Communication problems
Dependence on common resource pool
Lack of common performance standards
Individual differences
Model of the conflict process
1. Frustration
2. Conceptualization
3. Behaviour
4. Outcome
Ways of handling conflict
Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
Accommodating
How to prevent group conflict
- emphasize organization-wide goals
- provide stable, well structured tasks
- facilitate inter-group communication
- avoid win-lose situations
Distributive bargaining
Win-lose bargaining
Integrative bargaining
Win-win bargaining
Reflective decision-making
An organized and systematic system that is logical, analytical and deliberate.
Reactive/reflexive decision making
Possesses a quick, impulsive and intuitive quality, relying on habits or emotions to guide which direction
Programmed decisions
Follow clear guidelines.
Non-programmed decisions
Novel and lack clear guidelines
The decision-making process
1. Decide to decide
2. Generate multiple alternatives.
3. Analyze the alternatives
4. Select an alternative
5. Implement the selected alternative
6. Evaluate its effectiveness
Barriers to decision-making
Bounded rationality
Escalation of commitment
Time constraints
Uncertainty
Personal biases
Conflict (process and relationship)
Mintzberg’s management roles
1. Interpersonal role (figurehead, liaison, formal authority)
2. Informational role (monitor, disseminate, spokesperson)
3. Decisional role (entrepreneurs, resource allocation, negotiator)
Max Webber’s theory
Organizations would be more efficient if they divided their labour duties (bureaucratic model)
types of innovation
Sustaining
Disruptive
Incremental
Radical
Lewin’s change model
1. Unfreeze: Existing customs, routines and practices need to be disrupted
2. Move: Changes are introduced to shift the system to a new state of reality
3. Re-freeze: Reinforce the new customs and practices
Kotter’s change model
8 steps to change. Useful in hierarchies. Similar to Lewin’s but more complicated (Unfreeze, move, re-freeze)
Appreciative Inquiry
A positive, abundance-based approach to change.
Define
Discover
Dream
Design
Destiny
Types of change
Structural
technological
Cultural
Dimensions of change
1. Scope (incremental, transformational or strategic)
2. Level (individual, group or organizational)
3. Intentionality (planned or unplanned)
Types of change
Deficit-based change
Abundance-based change
Top-down change
Bottom-up/emergent
Complex Adaptive Systems
Assumes an organization is constantly developing and adapting to its environment, like a living organism.
Cognitive diversity hypothesis
Different perspectives lead to innovative problem solving and creativity
Similarity-attraction paradigm
People like people like themselves
Social cognitive theory
People categorize information so that it can be analyzed clearly and efficiently
Social identity theory
We categorize others based on belonging to an in group and out group.
Schema theory
People encode information about others based on their demographics which affects their interactions with one another
Justification-suppression model
Irrational people may prove their biases by justifying them for their benefit
Diversity paradigms
Discrimination and fairness
Access and legitimacy
Learning and effectiveness
Kanfer’s self-management model
1. Self monitoring (what am I doing wrong?)
2. Self evaluation (What should I be doing?)
3. Self reinforcement (Everyone is ok now)
Tuckman’s stages of group development
1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
