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Epidemiology > Definitions > Flashcards

Definitions Flashcards

1
Q

Exposure

A

Any factor that may influence the outcome e.g. smoking

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2
Q

Outcome

A

The disease, or event, or health related state under study e.g. lung cancer

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3
Q

Observational epidemiology

A

Describe patterns of health and disease without intervening to change the factors which influence them

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4
Q

Interventional Epidemiology

A

Assess the effect of a specific intervention; individual level or community level

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5
Q

Prevalence

A

The number of existing cases in a population at a designated time

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6
Q

Point prevalence

A

The proportion of persons in a defined population that has the outcome under study at a specific point in time

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7
Q

Period prevalence

A

The proportion of persons in a defined population that has the outcome under study over a period of time

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8
Q

Incidence

A

The number of new cases in a defined time

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9
Q

Population pyramid

A

A graphic representation of the age and sex composition of the population

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10
Q

Spike pyramid

A

High birth rate, high death rate, low growth rate (in equilibrium)

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11
Q

Wedge pyramid

A

High birth rate, low death rate, high growth rate (in transition)

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12
Q

Barrel/beehive pyramid

A

Low birth rate, low death rate, low growth rate (in equilibrum)

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13
Q

Dependency ratio

A

the proportion of economically inactive people within the population (due to age - under 15s and over 65s)

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14
Q

Infant mortality rate

A

The number of deaths in infants aged under 1 year per 1000 live births; measure of a populations state of health and quality of healthcare

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15
Q

Maternal mortality ratio

A

The ratio of the number of maternal deaths during a given time period per 100,000 live births during the same time period

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16
Q

Fertility rate

A

The number of live births per 1000 women per year

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17
Q

Total period fertility rate

A

The average number of children that would be born to a women over her lifetime. TPFR >2.1 = increasing population; TPFR <2.1 = decreasing population

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18
Q

Life expectancy

A

The number of years a baby born today can be expected to live if it experienced the current age specific mortality rates

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19
Q

Healthy life expectancy

A

Expected years of life in good or fairly good general health

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20
Q

Disability free life expectancy

A

Expected years of life without a long term limiting illness

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21
Q

Potential years of life lost

A

A measure of the relative impact of various disease and lethal forces on society (highlights the loss to society form early deaths)

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22
Q

Disability adjusted life years

A

Measure of burden of disease (the extent to which a disease reduces healthy years if life); 1 DALY = 1 healthy year of life lost

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23
Q

Cross sectional study

A

Estimate frequency or outcome by comparing different groups at the same point in time

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24
Q

Random sampling

A

Each subject has equal chance

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25
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Population divided into groups (e.g. income or age), take a random sample from each group

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26
Q

Ecological study

A

Observational study with populations or groups (not individuals); compares group averages

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27
Q

Ecological fallacy

A

An attempt to infer from the ecological level to the individual level

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28
Q

Family aggregate analysis

A

Are relatives of a person with the disease more likely to have the disease than the general population

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29
Q

Twin studies

A

Quantifies the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to a disease; compares the concordance rate of disease in monozygotic twins to dizygotic twins

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30
Q

Adoption studies

A

Compare disease concordance with biological parents to disease concordance with adoptive parents

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31
Q

Segregation analysis

A

Analyses the mode of inheritance of a disease and how many genes are involved; involves studying pedigrees to see if inheritance follows a pattern

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32
Q

Linkage studies

A

A method for determining the region of genome that contains a disease susceptibility locus using genetic markers

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33
Q

Association studies

A

The tendency for 2 or more characters to occur together at a frequency more or less than would be expected from their individual frequencies

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34
Q

Genetic markers

A

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), copy number variation (CNV), insertion/deletion (INDEL)

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35
Q

Family based studies

A

Involves affected individuals and their parents

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36
Q

Genome wide association studies (GWAS)

A

Genetic markers are analysed covering the whole genome

37
Q

Linkage disequilibrium

A

Non-random correlation of alleles at 2 different loci; their occurence together is observed more or less often than expected from their individual frequencies

38
Q

Relative risk / risk ratio (RR)

A

Assess strength of association - compares incidence of disease between those exposed and those unexposed

39
Q

Risk difference (RD)

A

Measures clinical and public health importance of the causal relationship

40
Q

Person years

A

Total number of years the study subjects have contributed

41
Q

Temporality

A

Exposure status is defined before outcome is assessed (ie. the time sequence of events can be established)

42
Q

Prospective study

A

Measures risk factors ‘today’ then follows up into the future

43
Q

Retrospective study

A

Outcome of interest is examined ‘today’ and then history of exposure is determined from health, civic records etc

44
Q

Cases

A

Have the disease of interest

45
Q

Controls

A

Do not have the disease of interest

46
Q

Odds ratio

A

How likely or not an individual is to develop a disease if they are exposed

47
Q

Missclassification bias

A

True cases are wrongly labelled as controls (or vice versa)

48
Q

Observer bias

A

Knowledge of case/control status may influence data collection

49
Q

Survivor bias

A

Occurs if exposure is rapidly fatal (pt dies before they become known as a case)

50
Q

Confounding

A

A confounder is a variable that is independently associated with exposure and outcome

51
Q

Routine data

A

Data that is collected routinely in a standardised and consistent way

52
Q

Standardisation

A

Often used to control for confounding effects of age so that rates of disease or mortality can be compared in populations with different age structures

53
Q

Direct standardisation

A

Age specific rates from a population of interest are applied to a standard population

54
Q

Indirect standardisation

A

Finds the number of deaths expected if both populations had the same (standard) age specific death rates, but kept their real age structure

55
Q

Standard mortality ratio (SMR)

A

A measure, expressed as either a ratio or percentage, to quantify an increase or decrease in mortality in a study cohort compared to the general population

56
Q

Bias

A

Systematic deviation from the truth

57
Q

Selection bias

A

Systematic differences in characteristics between those who take part in a study and those who do not (or those in different groups)

58
Q

Information bias

A

Any error in the measurement of exposure or outcome that results in systemic differences in the accuracy of data collected between comparison groups

59
Q

Recall bias

A

Those with outcome report exposure with greater accuracy / minimise or conceal incriminating evidence

60
Q

Observer/interviewer bias

A

when the accuracy of exposure or outcome data recorded by the investigator differs systematically between subjects in different exposure groups

61
Q

Differential bias

A

The likelihood of misclassification of exposure is associated with outcome (and vice versa)

62
Q

Non-differential bias

A

Equal amount of misclassification has occurred in the same direction

63
Q

Effect measure modifier

A

Occurs when the magnitude of the effect of the primary exposure on an outcome differs depending on the level of a third variable

64
Q

Chance

A

Influences the results of all studies, by varying amounts

65
Q

Attributable risk (AR)

A

The difference between the incidence in exposed and the unexposed; it is the incidence of the disease (among exposed individuals) caused by the exposure

66
Q

Population attributable risk (PAR)

A

The incidence of disease in a population attributable to the risk factor; the absolute difference between risk in the total population and the unexposed population

67
Q

Attributable risk percentage (AR%)

A

The proportion of disease among the exposed which can be attributed to eh exposure and could be avoided by eliminating the exposure

68
Q

Population attributable risk percentage (PAR%)

A

Proportion of cases in the population attributable to the exposure

69
Q

Causation

A

Implies that there is a true mechanism that leads from exposure to disease

70
Q

Association

A

An identifiable relationship between an exposure and disease

71
Q

Cause

A

An event, condition, or characteristic without which the disease would not have occurred

72
Q

Necessary cause

A

An exposure which is necessary for disease to occur

73
Q

Sufficient cause

A

A set of conditions is a sufficient cause when it always produces the outcome; requires the joint action of many component factors

74
Q

Efficacy

A

Can this intervention work under ideal conditions

75
Q

Effectiveness

A

Does this intervention work under normal conditions

76
Q

Explanatory studies

A

Show if something can work under ideal conditions

77
Q

Pragmatic trials

A

Show if something does work in practice

78
Q

Comparator

A

Can be a placebo, alternative therapy or usual care

79
Q

Allocation concealment

A

The allocation sequence is not known to anybody involved in enrolling participants in the study

80
Q

Block randomisation

A

Ensures that the number of participants allocated ti each group is equal after every block of X patients have entered the study

81
Q

Stratified randomisation

A

Useful if other risk factors have a strong influence on the outcome

82
Q

Minimisation

A

Aims to balance treatment allocation across multiple factors (age, sex, disease severity etc); similar to stratified randomisation

83
Q

Crossover study design

A

Each patient gets both treatments, with half receiving A first and half receiving B first

84
Q

Cluster randomisation

A

When people are organised in natural groups, clusters are randomised not individuals

85
Q

Stepped wedge study design

A

Randomise groups into a sequence of treatment, all groups receive intervention but not all at the same time

86
Q

Intention to treat analysis

A

Compares outcomes for all randomised individuals - even if they stop taking treatment of drop out of the study; assesses the overall effect of assigning a subject t receive a particular intervention

87
Q

Per protocol analysis

A

Includes only those who finished the trial and took the drugs/underwent the intervention; may introduce bias due to selective drop out

88
Q

Performer bias

A

systematic differences in the care provided to the participants in the comparison groups other than the intervention under investigation

Epidemiology (1 decks)

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