Definitions Flashcards
Development
refers to formal and planned efforts to help employees acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform future job responsibilities and for the long-term achievement of individual career goals and organizational objectives.
The goal is to prepare individuals for promotions and future jobs as well as additional job responsibilities. This process might consist of extensive programs, such as leadership development, and might include seminars and workshops, job rotation, coaching, and other assignments. The goal is to prepare employees for future responsibilities and often for managerial careers.
Human capital
Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities of an organization’s employees
The primary objective of training and development is to develop and maximize an organization’s human capital
It has been found to be a key determinant of an organization’s performance and one of the most important resources for competitive advantage. Human capital development is one of the top areas of concern for organizations, and increased training and development for employees is one of the top strategies for developing human capital.
Instructional systems design model
The instructional systems design (ISD) model depicts training and development as a rational and scientific process that consists of three major steps: needs analysis, design and delivery, and evaluation.
The ISD model is a streamlined version of an earlier model of instructional design known as ADDIE, in which each letter represents a different action: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.
According to the ISD model, the training process begins with a performance gap. A performance gap is something in the organization that is not quite right or is of concern to management. Perhaps customer complaints are up, quality is low, market share is being lost, or employees are frustrated by management or technology. Or perhaps there is a performance problem that is making it difficult for employees or departments to achieve goals or meet standards.
Intersectionality
the idea that our different identity characteristics, such as our gender, age, ethnicity, and relative wealth or poverty—can interact to create compounding patterns of advantage or disadvantage, including our access to training.
Performance management
the process of establishing performance goals and designing interventions and programs to motivate and develop employees to improve their performance and, ultimately, organization performance. This process signals to employees what is really important in the organization, ensures accountability for behaviour and results, and helps improve performance.
Performance management is not a single event, like a performance appraisal or a training program; rather, it is a comprehensive, ongoing, and continuous process that involves various activities and programs designed to develop employees and improve their performance.
Pluralism
the holding of two or more offices or positions (such as benefices) at the same time
In a pluralist view, workers may hide knowledge because they fear that sharing knowledge might decrease their value and make them more vulnerable to layoffs. Hiding knowledge might also give a worker power that the worker can use to shape their working conditions or offset the greater organizational power of managers. Not applying training may reflect an expectation that the training will make a worker’s job more difficult or less satisfying.
Skills mismatch
A skills mismatch (or shortage) means that an insufficient number of workers with the needed skills are available to satisfy the number of available jobs.
In other words, there is a mismatch between the skilled labour available and the market demand. The shortage of skilled trades is considered to be one of the barriers to Canada’s economic prosperity. According to the Conference Board of Canada, there will be a shortage of a million workers by 2020
Under the Canada Job Grant, employers can receive up to $10,000 to train each worker and workers can receive up to $15,000 to upgrade their skills and help them find a new or better job. Having skilled workers is critical to the growth and competitiveness of organizations as well as economic growth and prosperity. The skills gap and skills mismatch are a major concern of organizations today, and training and development is an important part of the solution to reduce the gap and ensure that employees have the knowledge and skills required by organizations today.
Training
the action of teaching a person or animal a particular skill or type of behavior.
Training bond
A training bond is a contract between the employer and employee that states that the employer will pay for the employee’s training as long as the employee remains with the organization for a minimum period of time upon completion of a training program
Some organizations try to ensure that they benefit from their training programs by having employees sign a training bond.
If the employee fails to remain for the agreed-upon period of time, then he/she must reimburse the organization for the cost of the training.
Unitarism
Unitarism is a theory about how the world and organizations work. It emphasizes the cooperative nature of work and the undesirability of conflict. Its basic tenets are:
- an employee comes into the workplace to do an employer’s work,
- the employer’s agenda is the one that matters,
- the organization is held together by common objectives that unite managers and workers,
- there are no fundamental and/or irreconcilable conflicts between the interests of employers and employees, and
- conflict reflects miscommunication by managers and/or deviant behaviour by workers.
Work-integrated learning
Providing students with work experience through internships, apprenticeships, and cooperative placements
In 2017, the federal government introduced the Student Work-Integrated Learning Program, which provides employers in the STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) and business sectors with payroll subsidies for hiring students. The goal is to ensure that post-secondary students have the skills required by organizations when they graduate which will help to close the skills gap.
ACT theory (adaptive character of thought)
Learning takes place in three stages that are known as declarative knowledge, knowledge compilation, and procedural knowledge or proceduralization
What are the implications of ACT theory for learning and training? First, ACT theory recognizes that learning is a sequential and stage-like process that involves three important stages. Second, it indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages. And third, motivational interventions might be more or less effective depending on the stage of learning.
Chaining
Part of the conditioning process
Chaining is the second concept and involves the reinforcement of entire sequences of a task. During shaping, an individual learns each separate step of a task and is reinforced for each successive step.
The goal is to learn to combine each step and perform the entire response. This combination is what chaining involves, and it is accomplished by reinforcing entire sequences of the task and eventually reinforcing only the complete task after each of the steps have been learned.
Declarative knowledge
The first stage of learning is called declarative knowledge (ACT theory). It involves the learning of knowledge, facts, and information.
For example, think of what it was like when you learned how to drive a car. At first, you acquired a great deal of information, such as what to do when you get into the car, how to start the car and put it in gear, how to change gears if it is a standard shift, and so on. These pieces or units of information are called chunks.
Formal learning
Learning that is structured and planned by the organization
Formal learning has an expressed goal set by the organization and a defined process that is structured and sponsored by the organization.
Learning that involves formal, planned, and structured activities or the organized transfer of work-related skills, knowledge, and information. It includes activities such as classroom instruction, structured on-the-job programs, workshops, seminars, e-learning, and courses offered at external institutions.
Generalization
Part of the conditioning process
The third concept is generalization, which means that the conditioned response occurs in circumstances different from those during learning.
Thus, while a trainee might have learned a task through shaping and chaining, he or she might not be able to perform the task in a different situation or outside of the classroom. To achieve generalization, the trainer must provide trainees with opportunities to perform the task in a variety of situations.
Informal learning
Informal learning is learning that occurs naturally as part of work and is not planned or designed by the organization. Informal learning is spontaneous, immediate, and task-specific.
Learning that occurs primarily spontaneously and outside of formal, designed activities; the unstructured transfer of work-related skills, knowledge, and information, usually during work. It is usually initiated by learners and it can involve asking co-workers for help, ad hoc problem solving, incidental conversations, seeking out expert knowledge on the Internet, some types of coaching and mentoring, group problem-solving, and lunch-and-learn sessions.
Knowledge compilation
The second stage of learning is called knowledge compilation (ACT theory). Knowledge compilation involves integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the task.
The learner acquires the ability to translate the declarative knowledge acquired in the first stage into action. During this stage, performance becomes faster and more accurate. For example, when learning how to drive a car, you are able to get into the car and begin to drive without having to think about every single thing you must do. In other words, what was once many single and independent tasks during the declarative stage (e.g., put on your seatbelt, lock the car, adjust the seat, adjust the mirror, start the car, etc.) is now one smooth sequence of tasks. You get into the car and do all of the tasks as part of an integrated sequence.
Kolb’s learning style
Has to do with the way people gather information and process and evaluate it during the learning process.
Kolb’s four learning modes:
Converging
Diverging
Assimilating
Accommodating
according to Kolb, an individual’s learning style is a function of how they gather information and how they process information. For example, a converging learning style combines abstract conceptualization and active experimentation (thinking and doing). People with this learning style focus on problem solving and the practical application of ideas and theories. A diverging learning style combines concrete experience and reflective observation (feeling and watching). People with this orientation view concrete situations from different points of view and generate alternative courses of action. An assimilating style combines abstract conceptualization and reflective observation (thinking and watching). These people like to process and integrate information and ideas into logical forms and theoretical models. Finally, an accommodating learning style combines concrete experience and active experimentation (feeling and doing). People with this learning style prefer hands-on experience and like to learn by being involved in new and challenging experiences.
Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills. It involves a change of state that makes possible a corresponding change in one’s behaviour.
Learning is the result of experiences that enable one to exhibit newly acquired behaviours. Learning occurs “when one experiences a new way of acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern gratifying or useful, and incorporates it into the repertoire of behaviours.” When a behaviour has been learned, it can be thought of as a skill. Apprentices who participated in Abbott’s microelectronics manufacturer apprenticeship program learned to operate and monitor high-technology automated equipment, acquired skills to improve processes and automation, and enhanced their skills in communication, science and mathematics, quality regulations, critical thinking, and problem solving.
Locus of control
Locus of control refers to people’s beliefs about whether their behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces.
Persons with an internal locus of control believe that the opportunity to control their own behaviour resides within themselves. Persons with an external locus of control believe that external forces determine their behaviour. Thus, internals perceive stronger links between the effort they put into something and the outcome or performance level they achieve. Persons with an internal locus of control tend to have higher levels of training motivation.
Procedural knowledge
The final stage of learning is called procedural knowledge or proceduralization (ACT Theory). During this stage, the learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic and habitual.
In other words, the task can now be performed without much thought. The transition from knowledge acquisition to application is complete. This is what most of us experience when we drive. We get into a car and drive without giving much thought about what we are doing. The task of driving becomes habitual and automatic.
Resource allocation theory
Individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be used to learn a new task
Resource allocation theory explains what happens during each stage (of ACT theory) and recognizes that individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be used to learn a new task. Performance of a new task is determined by individual differences in attentional and cognitive resources, the requirements of the task (task complexity), and self-regulatory activities (e.g., self-monitoring and self-evaluation) used to allocate attention across tasks.
Self-regulation
The third component of social cognitive theory
Self-regulation means managing one’s own behaviour through a series of internal processes
Self-regulation is a goal-oriented cyclical process in which trainees set goals and establish a plan for learning, develop learning strategies, focus their attention on learning, monitor their learning outcomes, and modify their behaviours over time.
Communities of practice
Groups of employees who share similar concerns and problems and meet regularly to share their experiences and knowledge, learn from each other, and identify new approaches for working and solving problems
The core principles of communities of practice are that learning is social and people learn from each other while working together on the job. Thus, people in communities of practice share information and knowledge and in the process learn with and from each other. Members ask each other for help, exchange best practices, and share information
Communities of practice can exist within a department in an organization as well as across departments and regions and even include members from different organizations. Some communities of practice meet regularly face-to-face, while others use technology to communicate. The technology used for knowledge sharing and communities of practices is typically known as Web 2.0 technology.
Trainee cost
Also known as Trainee compensation
The cost of the salaries and benefits paid to trainees while they are attending a training program
Trainee compensation refers to the cost of the salaries and benefits paid to trainees while they are attending a training program. This might also include the cost of replacing employees while they are in training. The logic behind this cost is simply that employees must be paid while they are not working and this is a cost of the training program.
Shaping
Part of the conditioning process
Shaping refers to the reinforcement of each step in the process until it is mastered, and then withdrawing the reinforcer until the next step is mastered. Shaping is extremely important for learning complex behaviour. Behaviour modelling training is a training method that makes extensive use of this concept by rewarding trainees for the acquisition of separate skills performed sequentially.
Conditioning process
The conditioning process involves linking desired behaviour to pleasurable consequences. This is accomplished through three connected concepts: shaping, chaining, and generalization.
Social learning
The central premise of social cognitive theory is social learning, which involves learning through interactions with others. Social learning can be either formal (e.g., mentoring programs) or informal (e.g., collaborative work).
According to social cognitive theory, people learn by observing the behaviour of others, making choices about different courses of action to pursue, and managing their own behaviour in the process of learning. We observe the actions of others and make note of the reinforcing or punishing outcomes of their behaviour. We then imitate what we have observed and expect certain consequences to follow. Considerable research has shown that people observe and reproduce the actions and attitudes of others.
Workplace learning
Workplace learning is the process of acquiring job-related knowledge and skills through formal training programs and informal social interactions among employees.
Although the focus of this book is formal training and development programs, it is important to recognize that employees also acquire information and learn through informal interactions with others and from their experiences on the job. In fact, it is generally recognized that when it comes to workplace learning, about 70 percent comes from on-the-job experiences and assignments, 20 percent from relationships and interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal learning activities and events. This breakdown is known as the 70–20–10 model.
Competency
A competency is a cluster of related KSAs that forms a major part of a job and that enables the job holder to perform effectively. Competencies are behaviours that distinguish effective performers from ineffective performers. Competencies can be knowledge, skills, behaviour, or personality traits.
Examples of competencies for managers include setting goals and standards, coaching, making decisions, and organizing.
Compliance training
Training programs that are mandated by government legislation and regulations as well as industry and organization policies
For example, occupational health and safety policies in British Columbia require employers to take steps to prevent or minimize workplace bullying and harassment. As a result, employees and supervisors must be trained on how to recognize the potential for bullying and harassment, how to respond to bullying and harassment, and procedures for reporting incidents of bullying and harassment.
Group discussion method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
resembles face-to-face interview technique, e.g., structured or unstructured, formal or informal, or somewhere in between
can be focused on job (role) analysis, group problem analysis, group goal setting, or any number of group tasks or themes, e.g., “leadership training needs of the board”
uses one or several of the familiar group facilitating techniques: brainstorming, nominal group process, force fields, consensus rankings, organizational mirroring, simulation, and sculpting
Interview method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
can be formal or casual, structured or unstructured, or somewhere in between
- may be used with a sample of a particular group (board, staff, committee) or conducted with everyone concerned
- can be done in person, by phone, at the work site, or away from it
Nine basic needs analysis
observation questionnaires key consultation print media interviews group discussion tests records and reports work samples
Key consultation method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
secures information from those persons who, by virtue of their formal or informal standing, are in a good position to know what the training needs of a particular group are:
a. board chairman
b. related service providers
c. members of professional associations
d. individuals from the service population
Learning culture
A learning culture refers to the attitudes and practices within the organization regarding the importance placed on organizational learning and employee development.
In a similar vein, a continuous learning culture is a culture in which members of an organization believe that knowledge and skill acquisition are part of their job responsibilities and that learning is an important part of work life in the organization.
Need
While a need is a gap between the way things are (current results) versus the way they should be (desired results), needs analysis is the process to identify gaps or deficiencies in individual, group, or organizational performance. The way to identify performance gaps is to solicit information from those who are affected by the performance problem. A needs analyst gathers information from key people in an organization about the organization, jobs, and employees to determine the nature of performance problems.
Needs analysis
Needs analysis is a process designed to identify gaps or deficiencies in employee and organizational performance.
Needs analysis is concerned with the gaps between actual performance and desired performance. It is a “formal process of identifying needs as gaps between current and desired results, placing those needs in priority order based on the cost to meet each need versus the cost of ignoring it, and selecting the most important needs (problems or opportunities) for reduction or elimination.”
Observation method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
can be as technical as time–motion studies or as functionally or behaviourally specific as observing a new board or staff member interacting during a meeting
may be as unstructured as walking through an agency’s offices on the lookout for evidence of communication barriers
can be used normatively to distinguish between effective and ineffective behaviours, organizational structures, and/or process
Organizational analysis
Organizational analysis involves the study of the entire organization: its strategy environment resources organizational context
Key to an organizational analysis is finding out if a training program is aligned with an organization’s strategy, the existence of any constraints, and the extent of support for the delivery and success of a training program. An organizational analysis can help identify potential constraints and problems that can derail a training program so that they can be dealt with prior to or during the design and delivery of a costly program. Let’s take a closer look at each of the components of an organizational analysis.
Person analysis
the process of studying employee behaviour and performance to determine whether performance meets the work standards.
A standard is the desired level of performance—ideally, the quantifiable output of a specific job. A person analysis examines how well an employee performs the critical tasks and their knowledge, skills, and abilities. The objective is to provide answers to these kinds of questions: How well does the employee perform the tasks? Who, within the organization, needs training? What kind of training do they need?
Needs Analysis Process
What is the CONCERN?
Is it IMPORTANT?
If yes, CONSULT STAKEHOLDERS. If no, terminate
COLLECT INFORMATION
ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS, TASK ANALYSIS, & PERSON ANALYSIS
OUTCOMES
Print media method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
can include professional journals, legislative news/notes, industry “rags,” trade magazines, in-house publications
Questionnaire method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
may be in the form of surveys or polls of a random or stratified sample of respondents, or an enumeration of an entire “population”
can use a variety of question formats: open ended, projective, forced choice, priority ranking
can take alternative forms such as Q-sorts, or slip-sorts, rating scales, either predesigned or self-generated by respondent(s)
may be self-administered (by mail) under controlled or uncontrolled conditions, or may require the presence of an interpreter or assistant
Records and reports method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
can consist of organizational charts, planning documents, policy manuals, audits, and budget reports
employee records (grievances, turnover, accidents, etc.)
includes minutes of meetings, weekly/monthly program reports, memoranda, agency service records, program evaluation studies
Resource analysis
A resource analysis involves identifying the resources available in the organization that might be required to design and implement training and development programs.
Training programs are costly and require considerable resources. In addition to the financial costs, the design and implementation of a training program requires considerable time and expertise. Not all organizations have the expertise required to design and deliver training programs. In addition, the human resource staff might not have the time required to design new training programs. Training programs also require materials, equipment, and facilities, which can also be expensive.
Task analysis
A task analysis consists of a description of the activities or work operations performed on a job and the conditions under which these activities are performed. A task analysis reveals the tasks required for a person to perform a job and the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that are required to perform the tasks successfully.
There are six steps involved in a task analysis:
- Identify the target jobs.
- Obtain a job description.
- Develop rating scales to rate the importance and difficulty of each task and the frequency with which it is performed.
- Survey a sample of job incumbents.
- Analyze and interpret the information.
- Provide feedback on the results.
Test method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
are a hybridized form of questionnaire
can be very functionally oriented (like observations) to test a board, staff, or committee member’s proficiency
may be used to sample learned ideas and facts
can be administered with or without the presence of an assistant
Training transfer climate
Training transfer climate refers to characteristics in the work environment that can either facilitate or inhibit the application of training on the job.
A strong training transfer climate is one in which there are cues that remind employees to apply training material on the job, positive consequences such as feedback and rewards for applying training on the job, and supervisor and peer support for the use of newly acquired skills and abilities. The training transfer climate has been found to be a strong predictor of training effectiveness and of whether trainees apply newly trained skills on the job.
Work samples method
One of the nine basic needs analysis methods
are similar to observation but in written form
can be products generated in the course of the organization’s work, e.g., ad layouts, program proposals, market analyses, letters, training designs, or
written responses to a hypothetical but relevant case study provided by the consultant
Active practice
Providing trainees with opportunities to practise performing a training task or using knowledge during training
An example of a training program that includes practice is IBM’s Global Sales School, which prepares new sellers with the skills they need to differentiate IBM and win in the marketplace. The program focuses on learning by doing and includes practising sales skills, writing proposals, developing solutions, prospecting and identifying opportunities, negotiating and closing deals, and contributing to account and territory planning. Trainees also practise sales meetings that involve mock client meetings with experienced IBM sellers who play the role of a client.
Adaptive expertise
The ability to use knowledge and skills across a range of tasks, settings, and situations
Adaptive expertise requires a much deeper understanding of a task because the learner has to understand how to use his/her knowledge and skills in new and novel situations. This has important implications for the design of training programs
A key factor in training design for adaptive expertise is active learning. Active learning is an approach to training that gives trainees control over their learning so that they become active participants in their own learning experience.
Adaptive tasks
Tasks that differ from those worked on during training and require different solutions
An important part of effective EMT (Error-management instructions)
Six pre-training interventions
(1) attentional advice
(2) metacognitive strategies
(3) advance organizers
(4) goal orientation
(5) preparatory information
(6) pre-practice briefs.
Advance organizers
One of the six pre-training interventions.
Activities that provide trainees with a structure or framework to help them assimilate and integrate information acquired during practice.
Advance organizers are structures or frameworks to help trainees assimilate and integrate training content. In other words, they provide trainees with a structure or framework for organizing the training material and for integrating it with their existing knowledge. Advance organizers can include outlines, text, diagrams, and graphic organizers. Research on advance organizers has found that they improve cognitive and skill-based learning, and that they are particularly useful for learning highly complex and factual material and for low-ability trainees.
