Definition of Abnormality & The Behavioural Approach to Explaining Phobias

Question 1

What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?

Answer 1

1. statistical infrequency
2. deviation from social norms
3. failure to function adequately
4. deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

Define psychopathology

Answer 2

the scientific study of psychological disorders

Question 3

Define cultural relativism (in terms of abnormality)

Answer 3

the view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates

Question 4

Define deviation from social norms (in terms of abnormality)

Answer 4

when behaviour deviates from unstated rules about how one ‘ought’ to behave

Question 5

What does the DSM stand for?

Answer 5

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Question 6

What is the DSM?

Answer 6

a list of mental disorders that is used to diagnose mental disorders. For each disorder a list of clinical characteristics is given, i.e. the symptoms that should be looked for

Question 7

Define statistical infrequency (in terms of abnormality)

Answer 7

a person’s trait, thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual

Question 8

What are the 4 evaluation points for statistical infrequency?

Answer 8

1. some abnormal behaviours are desirable
2. the cut-off point is subjective
3. statistical infrequency is sometimes appropriate
4. cultural relativism

Question 9

What is the PEEL paragraph for the statistical infrequency evaluation point - ‘some abnormal behaviours are desirable’

Answer 9

P - the main issue is that there are many abnormal behaviours that are actually quite desirable
E - for example, very few people have an IQ over 150 but this abnormality is desirable not undesirable
E - equally, there are some ‘normal’ behaviours that are undesirable; e.g., experiencing depression
L - therefore, using statistical infrequency to define abnormality means that we are unable to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours

Question 10

What is the PEEL paragraph for the statistical infrequency evaluation point - ‘the cut-off point is subjective’

Answer 10

P - the fact that cut-off point are subjectively determined is a limitation of the definition
E - if abnormality is defined in terms of statistical infrequency, we need to decide where to seperate normality from abnormality.
E - for example, one of the symptoms of depression is ‘difficulty sleeping’. Some people might think abnormal sleep is less than 6 hours a night on average, others might think the cut-off should be 5 hours.
L - such disagreements mean it is difficult to define abnormality in terms of statistical infrequency

Question 11

What is the PEEL paragraph for the statistical infrequency evaluation point - ‘statistical infrequency is sometimes appropriate’

Answer 11

P - in some situations it is appropriate to use a statistical criterion to define abnormality
E - for example, intellectual disability is defined in terms of the normal distribution using the concept of standard deviation to establish a cut-off point for abnormality.
E - any individual whose IQ is more than 2 standard deviations below the mean is judged as a mental disorder - however, such diagnosis is only made in conjunction with failure to function adequately
L - this suggests that statistical infrequency is only one of a number of tools

Question 12

What is the PEEL paragraph for the statistical infrequency evaluation point - ‘cultural relativism’

Answer 12

P - an issues is that behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically more frequent in another
E - for example, one of the symptoms of schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices
E - however, this is an experience that is common in some cultures.
L - what this means in practice is that there are no universal standards or rules for labelling behaviour as abnormal

Question 13

What are the 4 evaluation points for deviation from social norms?

Answer 13

1. susceptible to abuse
2. deviance is related to context and degree
3. there are some strengths
4. cultural relativism

Question 14

What is the PEEL paragraph for the deviation from social norms evaluation point - ‘susceptible to abuse’

Answer 14

P - what is socially acceptable now may not have been socially acceptable years ago
E - for example, today, homosexuality is acceptable in most counties in the world but in the past it was included under sexual and gender identity disorders in the DSM.
E - similarly, 50 years ago in Russia, anyone who disagreed with the state ran the risk of being regarded as inane and placed in a mental institution. In fact, Thomas Szasz (1974) claimed that the concept of mental illness was simply a way to exclude nonconformists from society
L - therefore, if we define abnormality in terms of deviation from social norms, there is a real danger of creating definitions based on prevaility social morals and attitudes.

Question 15

What is the PEEL paragraph for the deviation from social norms evaluation point - ‘deviance is related to context and degree’

Answer 15

P - another limitation is that judgements on deviance are often related to the context of a behaviour
E - for example, a person on a beach wearing next to nothing is regarded as normal, whereas the same outfit in the classroom or at a formal gathering would be regarded as abnormal and possibly an indication of a mental disorder.
E - shouting loudly and persistently is deviant behaviour but not evidence of mental disturbance unless it is excessive - and even then it might not be a mental disorder
L - this means that social deviance on its own cannot offer a complete definition of abnormality, because it is inevitably related to both context and degree

Question 16

What is the PEEL paragraph for the deviation from social norms evaluation point - ‘there are some strengths’

Answer 16

P - on the positive side, this definition does distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviour, a feature that was absent from the statistical infrequency model
E - the social deviancy model also takes into account the effect that behaviour has on others. Deviance is defined in terms of transgression of social rules and (ideally) social rules are established in order to help people live together
E - according to this definition, abnormal behaviour is behaviour that damages others
L - this definition, therefore, offers a practical and useful way of identifying undesirable and potentially damaging behaviour, which may alert others of the need to secure help for the person concerned

Question 17

What is the PEEL paragraph for the deviation from social norms evaluation point - ‘cultural relativism’

Answer 17

P - attempting to define abnormality in terms of social norms is obviously bound by culture because social norms are defined by culture
E - classification systems, such as the DSM, are almost entirely based on the social norms of the dominant culture in the West (white and middle class), and yet the same criteria are applied to people from different subcultures living in the West.
E - cultural relativism is now acknowledged in the most recent revision to the DSM in 2013 (DSM-V), which makes reference to cultural contexts in many areas of diagnosis. For example, in the section on panic attacks a note is made that uncontrollable crying may be a symptom in some cultures, whereas difficulty breathing may be a primary symptom in other cultures
L - this shows that it is possible to address this issue by including cultural differences in diagnostic systems

Question 18

Define deviation from ideal mental health (in terms of abnormality)

Answer 18

an absence of any of the 6 characteristics proposed by Jahoda would indicate an abnormal individual

Question 19

Define failure to function adequately (in terms of abnormality)

Answer 19

refers to abnormality that prevent the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect from them, such as getting out of bed each day

Question 20

What are the 6 criteria that need to be fulfilled for ideal mental health (‘normality’) according to Jahoda?

Answer 20

1. positive attitude towards the self
2. self-actualisation
3. autonomy
4. resistance to stress
5. environmental mastery
6. an accurate perception of reality

Question 21

What is meant by ‘positive attitude towards the self’?

Answer 21

This is linked to the individual’s level of self-esteem. For ideal mental health the positive attitude should be at a good level, so that the individual feels happy with themselves.

Question 22

What is meant by ‘self-actualisation’?

Answer 22

Self-actualisation is being in a state of contentment, feeling that you have become the best you can be.

Question 23

What is meant by ‘autonomy’?

Answer 23

This is having the independence and self-reliance. The ability to function as an individual and not depending on others.

Question 24

What is meant by ‘resistance to stress’?

Answer 24

This criteria is that an individual should not feel under stress and they should be able to handle stressful situations competently.

Question 25

What is meant by ‘environmental mastery’?

Answer 25

Having environmental mastery means that the person can adapt to new situations and be at ease at all situations in their life.

Question 26

What is meant by ‘an accurate perception of reality?

Answer 26

This criteria is focused on how the individual sees the world around them and to achieve ideal mental health they should have a perspective that is similar to how others see the world. This is focused very much on the distortions of thinking that some people, e.g. people with schizophrenia, may experience.

Question 27

What did Jahoda say must happen for ideal mental health to be achieved?

Answer 27

Jahoda stated that for ideal mental health to be achieved the individual should experience all of the 6 criterias for optimum ideal mental health and that if some are not fulfilled the person will experience difficulties.

Question 28

What are the 4 evaluation points for failure to function adequately?

Answer 28

1. who judges?
2. the behaviour may be functional
3. subjective experience recognised
4. cultural relativism

Question 29

What is the PEEL paragraph for the failure to function adequately evaluation point - ‘who judges?’

Answer 29

P - who is the person who decides if someone is failing to function adequately?
E - if a person is experiencing personal distress, for example is unable to get to work or eat regular meals, they may recognise that this is undesirable and may feel distressed and seek help.
E - on the other hand, the individual may be quite content with the situation and/or simply unaware that they are not coping. It is other who are uncomfortable and judge the behaviour as abnormal.
E - for example, some schizophrenics are potentially dangerous, as in the case of someone like Peter Sutcliffe, the Yorkshire Ripper
L - therefore, the limitation of this approach is that the judgement depends on who is making the decision, i.e. it is subjective

Question 30

What is the PEEL paragraph for the failure to function adequately evaluation point - ‘the behaviour may be functional’?

Answer 30

P - another limitation is that some apparently dysfunctional behaviour can actually be adaptive and functional for the individual
E - for example, some mental disorders, such as eating disorders or depression, may lead to extra attention for the individual. Such attention is rewarding and thus quite functional rather than dysfunctional.
E - for example, transvestism is classed as a mental disorder but individuals are likely to regard it as perfectly functional
L - this failure to distinguish between functional and dysfunctional behavior means that this definition is incomplete

Question 31

What is the PEEL paragraph for the failure to function adequately evaluation point - ‘subjective experience recognised’?

Answer 31

P - on the positive side, this definition of abnormality does recognise the subjective experience of the patient
E - it allows us to view mental disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it
E - in addition, ‘failure to function’ is also relatively easy to judge objectively because we can list behaviours (can dress self, can prepare meals - as in WHODAS) and thus judge abnormality objectively
L - this definition of abnormality therefore has a certain sensitivity and practicality

Question 32

What is the PEEL paragraph for the failure to function adequately evaluation point - ‘cultural reletavism’?

Answer 32

P - an important issue is that failure to function adequately is limited by being culturally relative 
E - Definitions of adequate functioning are related to cultural ideas of how one's life should be lived. The 'failure to function' criterion is likely to result in different diagnoses when applied to people from different cultures, because the standard of one culture is being used to measure another.
E - this may explain, for example, why lower-class and non-white patients (whose lifestyles differ from the dominant culture) are more often diagnosed with mental disorders 
L - this means that the use of this model is limited by its cultural relativism

Question 33

What are the 4 evaluation points for ideal mental health?

Answer 33

1. unrealistic criteria
2. equates mental and physical health
3. it is a positive approach
4. cultural relativism

Question 34

What is the PEEL paragraph for the ideal mental health evaluation point - ‘unrealistic & difficult to measure’?

Answer 34

P - one of the major criticisms of this definition is that , according to ideal mental health criteria, most of us are abnormal
E - Jahoda presented them as ideal criteria and they certainly are. We also have to ask how many need to be lacking before a person would be judged as abnormal. Furthermore, the criteria are quite difficult to measure
E - for example, how easy is it to assess capacity for personal growth or environmental mastery?
L - this means that this approach may be an interesting concept but not really useable when it comes to identifying abnormality

Question 35

What is the PEEL paragraph for the ideal mental health evaluation point - ‘equates mental and physical health ‘?

Answer 35

P - another limitation of this definition is that it tries to apply the principles of physical health to mental helath
E - in general, physical illness have physical causes such as a virus or bacterial infection, and as a result this makes them relatively easy to detect and diagnose.
E - it is possible that some mental disorders also have physical causes (e.g. brain injury or drug abuse) but many do not. They are the consequence of life experiences
L - therefore, it is unlikely that we could diagnose mental abnormality in the same way that we can diagnose physical abnormality

Question 36

What is the PEEL paragraph for the ideal mental health evaluation point - ‘it is a positive approach’?

Answer 36

P - this definition focus on the positives rather than the negatives
E - it offers an alternative perspective on mental disorder that focus on the ‘ideal’ - what is desirable rather than what is undesirable.
E - even though Jahoda’s ideas were never really taken up by mental health professionals, the ideas have some influence and are in accord with the ‘positive psychology’ movement
L - a strength of this approach, therefore, lies in its positive outlook and its influence on humanistic approaches

Question 37

What is the PEEL paragraph for the ideal mental health evaluation point - ‘cultural relativism’?

Answer 37

P - many of Jahoda’s mental health criteria are culture-bound
E - for example the goal of self-actualisation (reaching one’s full potential) is relevant to members of individualist cultures but not collectivist cultures where people promote the needs of the group not themselves.
E - if we apply Jahoda’s criteria to people from collectivist cultures or even non-middle-class social groups, we will most probably find a higher incidence of abnormality
L - this limits the usefulness of this definition to certain cultural groups

Question 38

According to the behavioural approach, abnormal behaviour can be caused by…

Answer 38

1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning
3) social learning theory

Question 39

Who put forward a two-process model, to explain how phobias are learned through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning? (+date!)

Answer 39

Mowrer (1947)

Question 40

According to classical conditioning, phobias can be acquired through…

Answer 40

classical conditioning and associative learning

Question 41

How does the process of classical conditioning explain phobias?

Answer 41

we learn to associate something we do not fear (neutral stimulus), for example a dog, with something which triggers a fear response (unconditioned stimulus), for example being bitten. After an association has formed, the dog (now a conditioned stimulus) causes a response of fear (conditioned response) and consequently, we develop a phobia of dogs, following a single incident of being bitten.

Question 42

Who conducted the Little Albert experiment? (+ date!)

Answer 42

Watson & Raynor (1920)

Question 43

What was the aim of the Little Albert experiment?

Answer 43

to examine whether a fear response could be learned through classical conditioning, in humans

Question 44

Outline the procedure of the Little Albert experiment

Answer 44

1. A laboratory experiment was conducted with one participant, an 11-month-old boy who lived in the hospital where his mother was a nurse.
2. Albert was presented with various stimuli, including a white rat, a rabbit and some cotton wool, and his responses were filmed. He showed no fear reaction to any stimuli.
3. A fear reaction was then induced into Albert by striking a steel bar with a hammer behind his head. 4. This startled Albert, making him cry. He was then given a white rat to play with, of which he was not scared. As he reached to touch the rat, the bar and hammer were struck to frighten him.
4. This procedure was repeated three times. Variations of these conditioning techniques continued for 3 months.
5. It was intended that Albert’s fear reactions would be ‘de-conditioned’, but he was removed from the hospital by his mother before this could occur.

Question 45

What were the findings of the Little Albert experiment?

Answer 45

when shown the rat, Albert would cry, roll over and crawl away. He had developed a fear towards the white rat, which he also displayed to similar animals with less intensity and to other white furry objects, like a white fur coat and Santa Claus beard.

Question 46

What conclusion was drawn to from the Little Albert experiment?

Answer 46

conditioned emotional responses, including love, fear and phobias, are acquired as a direct result of environmental experiences, which can transfer and persist, possibly indefinitely, unless removed by counter-conditioning.

Question 47

Describe research evidence that support the findings of the Little Albert experiment?

Answer 47

Mowrer (1960) found that by making a few presentations of an electric shock to rats immediately following the sound of a buzzer, he could produce a fear response just by sounding the buzzer. The rats had acquired a phobia of the buzzer through CC.

Question 48

How does Mowrer say phobias are maintained?

Answer 48

through operant conditioning

Question 49

According to operant conditioning phobias can be…

Answer 49

negatively reinforced

Question 50

Give an example of when a phobia is negatively reinforced

Answer 50

if a person with a phobia of dogs sees a dog whilst out walking, they might try to avoid the dog by crossing over the road. This avoidance reduces the person’s feelings of anxiety and negatively reinforces their behaviour, making the person more likely to repeat this behaviour (avoidance) in the future. As a result a person will continue to avoid dogs and maintain their phobia.

Question 51

What does the two-process model, say about phobias?

Answer 51

phobias are initiated through classical conditioning (learning through association) and maintained through operant conditioning (negative reinforcement).

Question 52

What are the 4 evaluation points for the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

Answer 52

1. behavioural approach to psychopathology is scientific
2. deterministic
3. reductionist
4. biological preparedness

Question 53

What is the PEEL paragraph for the behavioural approach to explaining phobias evaluation point - ‘behavioural approach to psychopathology is scientific’?

Answer 53

P - The behavioural approach to psychopathology is scientific and its key principals can be measured in an objective way.
E - For example, the phobia developed by Little Albert was clear for all to see and measure, variables could be manipulated and controlled to ensure that Little Albert’s phobia development was as a result of a neutral stimulus being associated with an unconditioned response.
E - This is positive because it allows concepts such as classical conditioning to be demonstrated scientifically and has resulted in a large amount of empirical support for behavioural therapies.
E - The main advantage of this theory is that it can explain the mechanism behind the acquisition and maintenance of phobias, which classical or operant conditioning alone cannot do.
L - Ultimately, the objectivity of the behavioural approach to psychopathology translates to practical benefits in systematic desensitisation and flooding.
Moreover, the theory emphasises the importance of exposing the patient to the phobic stimulus because this prevents the negative reinforcement of avoidance behaviour. The patient realises that the phobic stimulus is harmless and that their responses are irrational/disproportionate, thus translating into a successful therapy.

Question 54

What is the PEEL paragraph for the behavioural approach to explaining phobias evaluation point - ‘deterministic’?

Answer 54

P - The behavioural approach/two-process model of phobias can be criticised for being deterministic.
E - For example, the Two-Process model suggests that when an individual experiences a traumatic event and uses this event to draw an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned response they will go on and develop a phobia.
E - This is a weakness because this theory of phobias suggests that we are programmed by our environmental experiences and ignores individual free will (for example, if a person is bitten by a dog this negative experience may not cause them to develop a phobia of dogs.
E - This hard determinism, therefore, suggests that all behaviour can be predicted, according to the action of internal and external forces beyond our control, and so there can be no free will. For example, behaviourism suggests that all behaviour is the product of classical and operant conditioning.
L - Ultimately, the fact that the behavioural approach/two-process model of phobias can be criticised for being deterministic is a weakness of the theory as determinism overly simplifies human behaviour and, in reality, human behaviour is far more complex. Behavioural explanations may be appropriate for non-humans but human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors i.e. cognitive factors which can override biological impulses.

Question 55

What is the PEEL paragraph for the behavioural approach to explaining phobias evaluation point - ‘reductionist’?

Answer 55

P - The behavioural approach/two-process model of phobias can be criticised for being reductionist.
E - For example, the two-process model suggests that complex mental disorders such as phobias are caused solely by our experience of association, rewards and punishment (we learn all abnormalities including phobias).
E - This is a problem because the behavioural approach to explaining phobias can be seen to be too simplistic as it ignores the role of other factors such as our childhood experiences, everyday stressors and the role of biology (e.g. genes, neurotransmitters) in the development of abnormality.
E - Behaviourist explanations suggest that all behaviour can be explained in terms of simple stimulus response links, i.e. phobias are obtained and maintained using classical and operant conditioning (through repeated pairings between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus to produce an unconditioned response, and then leading to a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response, as shown through Watson and Rayner’s study of Little Albert).
L - Reductionist explanations may lead to a loss of validity because they ignore the social context where behaviour occurs, which often gives behaviour its meaning. Ultimately, reductionist explanations simplify the phenomena of phobias too much

Question 56

What is the PEEL paragraph for the behavioural approach to explaining phobias evaluation point - ‘biological preparedness’?

Answer 56

P - The fact that phobias do not always develop after a traumatic incident may be explained in terms of biological preparedness.
E - Martin Seligman (1970) argued that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to rapidly learn an association between potentially life-threatening stimuli and fear. These stimuli are referred to as ancient fears – things that would have been dangerous in our evolutionary past (e.g., snakes, heights, strangers).
E - It would be adaptive to rapidly learn to avoid such stimuli.
E -This would explain why people are much less likely to develop fears of modern objects such as toasters and cars that are more of a threat than spiders. Such items were not a danger in our evolutionary past.
L - This suggests that the behavioural approach cannot explain all phobias.