Define Flashcards
From its beginning until the 1940s, and again in the late 1950s as a reaction to the Cold War, school guidance counseling focused primarily on:
a. Individual counseling/support
b. Vocational guidance
c. Developmental guidance
d. Educational guidance
b. Vocational guidance
Until the 1940s, school guidance counseling was primarily focused on helping students choose vocations suited to their personality traits. In the 1940’s, Carl Rogers instigated a change in the professional focus from vocational to individual counseling. In the 1950s, professional organizations appeared, setting standards for school counseling, training, and the profession. The National Defense Education Act, a reaction to the start of the Cold War, changed the focus back to vocation as the US government provided funding to increase the number of scientists and mathematicians in the arms race. In the 1960s and 1970s, the focus again shifted to individual support and developmental guidance. In 1987, a journal article defining the perception of school counseling as unnecessary prompted the profession to take on a holistic focus and to create national standards for training school counselors and for the professional activities of school counselors, in effect saving itself from becoming obsolete by both increasing its professional scope and taking an active interest in promoting and advocating for the profession.
The key to diagnosing the reasons for any negative reactions to authority is:
a. reflecting on any personal bias involved.
b. understanding different ethnic/cultural views of authority.
c. having a discussion with the parties involved.
d. investigating the way power and authority is used in the school as a whole.
c. having a discussion with the parties involved.
When a counselor is faced with a negative reaction to authority, his or her first reaction may be to become defensive or upset. However, the appropriate way to handle this situation is to investigate and examine the reasons why others are responding this way. This may be a difficult reaction to have for many counselors. The feelings of hurt and anger are normal: however, an effective counselor knows how to put those feelings away and move on to the problem-solving stage. The challenge to authority can be a positive situation, especially if the causes are understood. The key to diagnosing the reasons for the negative reaction is to have a discussion with the parties involved. Every effort should be made to avoid putting anyone on the defensive, and every attempt should be made to understand the person’s point of view.
There are three key federal acts governing the disclosure of student records; the most significant is the:
a. Keeping Children and Families Safe Act
b. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
c. Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
d. National Defense Education Act
c. Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
There are three key federal acts governing the disclosure of student records. The most significant is the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974, which limits the disclosure of student records. The Privacy Rule of 2001 established national rights for privacy and security regarding health information, in concert with FERPA. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 generated national standards regarding the privacy of individually identified health information, set criteria for health records, and delineated patients’ rights. Any school records, including health records, that are protected under FERPA are not subject to HIPAA regulations; however, educators in special education may be required to obtain the services of outside professionals whose services are governed by HIPAA. Counselors should be knowledgeable and aware of regulations regarding the exchange of student information and when exceptions to FERPA are warranted by HIPAA or other law.
Who departed from earlier ideas of therapy by insisting that therapists should be as transparent or genuine with their clients as possible?
a. Jean Piaget
b. Sigmund Freud
c. Carl Rogers
d. B. F. Skinner
c. Carl Rogers
Rogers believed that therapists should be as transparent or genuine as possible; a departure from earlier ideas of therapy that positioned the therapist as unknowable, unflappable, and an expert on the client’s “problem.” Rogerian therapy functions from the premise that the client is the expert on themselves. Counselors are careful not to provide interpretation, advice, or didactic training but to simply be there with the client, attending to the growing relationship, considered the central place of healing in client-centered therapy.
Each of Erik Erikson’s eight developmental stages contains a psychosocial crisis. What crisis is associated with 12-18 years old?
a. Initiative vs. Guilt
b. Intimacy vs. Isolation
c. Identity vs. Role Confusion
d. Industry vs. Inferiority
c. Identity vs. Role Confusion
Each of Erik Erikson’s eight developmental stages contains a psychosocial crisis, the positive resolution of which results in attainment of a basic virtue. Erikson’s theory posits that people move through stages in order, with each stage being resolved positively or negatively. The more stages whose outcomes are healthy, the healthier the personality. The school ages (between 5 and 12 and 12 and 18) are stages of Industry versus Inferiority and Identity versus Role Confusion. Adolescence is characterized by the identity crisis, in which students explore and create a unique self.
Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age
Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0-1.5 years old
Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1.5-3 years old
Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5 years old
Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5-12 years old
Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12-18 years old
Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18-40 years old
Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40-65 years old
Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+ years old
Which of the following is NOT true of the developmental stage of middle childhood?
a. Middle childhood is often called the formal operational stage.
b. Middle childhood is generally associated with the ages between 7 and 11.
c. Children in their middle childhood years are becoming less egocentric.
d. Middle childhood is easily distinguished by the ability to think logically and mentally reverse actions.
a. Middle childhood is often called the formal operational stage.
Middle childhood, generally associated with the ages between 7 and 11, is most easily distinguished by the ability to think logically, read and write more skillfully, and mentally reverse actions. While they are still unable to grasp many abstract ideas, students in this age group are nonetheless increasingly able to manipulate concrete information. They are able to generalize about their actions or their environment based on this information. The development of logical thinking allows children in this age group to interact more cooperatively, in part because they are more able to recognize intentionality and are becoming less egocentric. Counselors working with this age group can use such strategies as exploration, manipulation of information, and action. Sessions are best served if the counselor remains aware that students in this age group are generally able to reason logically, based on concrete information. For this reason, middle childhood is often called the concrete operational stage.
Counselors working in the school community to dissipate cultural misunderstandings and biases will be well served to recognize that race is a concept defined primarily by:
a. Historical factors
b. Religious and familial factors
c. Biogenetic factors
d. Behavioral and economic factors
d. Behavioral and economic factors
Race can be defined by biogenetic factors, socioeconomic grouping, distinctive traits and behaviors, language, traditions, and rituals. Individually or as an aggregate, these factors often play a part in racial discrimination and segregation. Segregation also may be based on economic status, academic achievement, level of fluency in English, or disability. In this sense, race can be viewed as a political and psychological concept. Counselors working in the school community to dissipate cultural biases and misunderstandings will be well served to recognize that race is a concept defined primarily by these behavioral and economic factors.
Hierarchical practices that inherently discriminate against certain groups in the distribution of resources is:
a. Internalized oppression
b. Cultural oppression
c. Systemic or institutional oppression
d. External oppression
c. Systemic or institutional oppression
The forms of oppression can be placed into five general categories:
- The first category is individualized oppression, which encompasses oppression stemming from assumptions of inferiority in another person based on race or culture.
- This process extrapolated to the group level becomes cultural oppression, which is comprised of actions or attitudes toward a cultural group that result in the targeted group changing its behavior.
- Systemic or institutional oppression is hierarchical practices that inherently discriminate against certain groups in the distribution of resources.
- Internalized oppression is psychological phenomenon that occurs when a group receives enough externalized oppression that they begin to believe and perpetuate their own perceived inferiority. The oppressed group functionally begins to believe that the oppression is deserved or understandable.
- Conversely, external oppression describes actions or beliefs targeting a particular group because they are perceived by others as inferior.
Instances of oppression may fall into more than one category.
Which of the following is NOT one of the five major cultural groups identified by the Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD)?
a. African/Black
b. Mixed/Multi-ethnic Americans
c. Caucasian/European
d. Native American
b. Mixed/Multi-ethnic Americans
Multicultural counseling occurs when the race or ethnicity of the students is different from that of the counselor. The multicultural counseling relationship will necessarily involve two sets of expectations, perceptions, social environments, beliefs, and backgrounds, often beyond the usual disparities between two people. Sensitivity to culturally-based differences can be helpful in communication and setting expectations. The five major cultural groups identified by the Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) are African/Black, Asian, Caucasian/European, Hispanic/Latino/a, and Native American. Other cultural groups can pertain to gender, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, etc. A counselor should try to remain aware of multicultural counseling without falling into a biased taxonomy.
Multicultural counseling incorporates three distinct levels of competence. What is the initial, foundational level?
a. Sensitivity
b. Awareness
c. Respect
d. Skills
b. Awareness
Multicultural counseling incorporates three distinct levels of competence:
- The initial, foundational level is that of awareness. Counselors can begin to build multicultural competence by first becoming aware of the effects of culture on worldview, behaviors, etc. It is a good first step for counselors to be aware of their own preconceived notions about cultures, as well as aspects of their value system that are culturally based. Building on this, counselors can gain knowledge, respect, and understanding of other cultures, realizing that cultural assimilation is not always the recommended course of action for students.
- Cultural sensitivity includes refraining from imposing dominant beliefs and attitudes, unless appropriate. Balancing social protocol with cultural expression is a valuable skill that counselors can teach to students.
- Additionally, counselors can develop skills that enable them to implement effective and appropriate strategies when working with students from diverse cultures.
Which of the following is NOT true of empowerment?
a. The idea of empowerment is rooted in the redistribution of resources.
b. Empowerment should be understood as being egalitarian rather than hierarchal.
c. Counselors can help students feel empowered by pointing out their membership in the larger community.
d. A sense of empowerment and recognition of social dynamics can reverse students’ thinking, from that of victim to that of change agent for social justice.
a. The idea of empowerment is rooted in the redistribution of resources.
The idea of empowerment includes the distribution of resources but is rooted in a larger context of social relationships and dynamics. Culturally-based oppression often depends on acceptance from both the dominant culture and the oppressed culture. Historically oppressed cultures sometimes adopt ways of thinking and behaving that originally were enforced by violence or other extreme means but have continued because of cultural identity. Likewise, historically dominant cultures adopt ways of thinking and behaving that perpetuate a false sense of superiority. Counselors can help students develop personal empowerment by encouraging them to recognize that individuals and groups of individuals often share many similarities and are connected at a fundamental level. This kind of thinking transcends historical relationships and forges new interpersonal connections, giving empowerment to previously disenfranchised groups.
If a counselor finds that lines of test success or failure fall in a quasi-line progression toward eliminating or isolating a particular cultural group, they should:
a. assume the test was successful.
b. understand that the test validates cultural differences.
c. review the test and the testing process for cultural biases.
d. be on the lookout for stronger indicators of academic oppression.
c. review the test and the testing process for cultural biases.
Counselors should be particularly vigilant about any personal biases that could obscure the assessment process. In other words, if a test is designed to assess student readiness for academic promotion, and half of the students perform at the readiness level while the other half perform below the readiness level, the initial reaction might be that the test was successful, and that half of the class is ready for promotion. However, if a counselor finds that lines of success or failure fall in a quasi-line progression toward eliminating or isolating a particular cultural group, he or she should avoid the assumption that the test validates cultural differences, and instead should review the test and the testing process for cultural biases. Not only can these cultural biases negatively affect individual students, but the continued use of a culturally skewed test can be used to fallaciously document poor achievement by particular cultures and further perpetuate academic oppression.
What is the first area to focus on when collecting student data?
a. Graduation-readiness
b. Workforce readiness
c. Academic participation
d. Academic achievement
d. Academic achievement
There are three major areas of focus when collecting student data:
- The first area to focus on when collecting data is that of academic achievement. Sources include standardized test scores, grade point averages, other academic-based scores or results, and retention and graduation rates.
- Secondly, academic participation can be quantitatively assessed by looking at data related to course enrollment, discipline referrals, suspension rates, incidents involving illegal substances, parent participation, homework completion, and extracurricular participation. It should be noted that retention/drop-out rates can form part of both the achievement and the participation data bases.
- The third major area of focus for student data collection is the set of graduation-readiness competencies. These competencies include the number of students with four-year plans on file and the number of students who have participated in workshops related to career-planning, job-shadowing, and conflict resolution. Students who have completed their academic goals also form part of the graduation-readiness competency data.
For counselors to be competent in multicultural counseling, it is important for them to develop a sensitivity to the significance of the distinguishing characteristics of culture. A good foundation for this sensitivity is:
a. Collecting and sharing data
b. Self-investigation and self-reflection
c. Workshops and seminars
d. Cultural history
b. Self-investigation and self-reflection
For counselors to be competent in multicultural counseling, it is important for them to develop a sensitivity to the significance of the distinguishing characteristics of culture. A good foundation for this sensitivity is self-investigation and self-reflection on the counselor’s own cultural background. Counselors can develop an understanding of how their cultural and ethnic background has contributed to their value system, traditions and rituals, view of the individual’s place in the larger society, and many other personal traits. Counselors who are aware of their own ties to culture will be better able to understand the significance of culture for students who come from a different cultural background. A counselor with this valuable foundation can be an important liaison for students who need to balance tradition with assimilation.
Which of the following refers to a significant cognitive lapse between ages 3 and 9 that cannot be accounted for by any other identified disability?
a. Autism
b. Developmental delay
c. Intellectual disability
d. Emotional disturbance
b. Developmental delay
Autism is a disability that affects social interactions as well as verbal and nonverbal communications. It can manifest in repetitive activities, stereotyped movements, resistance to changes in routine or environment, and unusual responses to stimuli. Most autism is evident in children before the age of 3. Academic performance may be mildly or severely impacted by autism, depending on the range and intensity of the symptoms.
Developmental delay refers to a significant cognitive lapse between ages 3 and 9 that cannot be accounted for by any other identified disability.
Emotional disturbance refers to a spectrum of symptoms that encompass a general inability to cope or learn which presents over a long period of time and to a marked degree. Symptoms include an unexplainable inability to learn, inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances, a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears that correlate with personal or academic problems, the inability to foster satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers or teachers, and a general mood of unhappiness or depression. This condition adversely affects educational performance accordingly. IDEIA includes schizophrenia in this category.
Intellectual disability refers to a significantly sub-average intellectual functioning that may exist alongside deficits in adaptive behavior that may manifest during the developmental period.
