Decolonisation in Africa

Question 1

How did WW2 stir, particularly African nationalism

Answer 1

• war caused an economic revolution in parts of the empire – urbanisation and industrialisation. - New factories rose to fill important gaps (e.g. beer and cigarettes) and to process raw materials.
• Africans were angered by increased British control.
• great shift of feeling on questions of race spread over the world after 1945. The example of Britain’s defeat by Japan and Hitler’s racial theories were unacceptable.
  -> By 1950s, the idea that Africans were
  inherently inferior was no longer tolerable.

Question 2

List the factors which contributed to the decolonisation of the Empire

Answer 2

• nationalist movements
• changing attitudes in Britain
• changing priorities in Europe
• Changing in Europe
• Economic concerns

Question 3

Explain how nationalist movements were a factor contributing to decolonisation

Answer 3

• Macmillan’s conviction of the strength of African nationalism deepened as a result of a six week tour of Africa in 1960.
• Belgium and France had given up their empires -> as one colony was granted independence, other colonies increased their demands, harder to sustain a case for delay elsewhere.
• In 1960, 16 new African states entered the UN.
  -> These newly independent states pressed
  for the independence for other colonial territories.

Question 4

Explain how changing attitudes in Britain were a factor contributing to decolonisation

Answer 4

• Macmillan realised that the brutal suppression of colonial peoples would damage Britain’s standing and credibility in the eyes of the world as well as being condemned by many Britons.
• Britons were increasingly indifferent to Empire and were unlikely to support new military
  burdens, particually if this meant the reintroduction of National Service.
• Policy makers could see no good
  strategic or economic reasons for spending vast sums of money and risking the loss of thousands of lives trying to rule people who had no wish to be ruled.

Question 5

Explain how changing priorities in Europe contributed to decolonisation

Answer 5

• By 1950s, Western Europe was experiencing dramatic post-war recovery, with full employment and rising living standards.
  -> This made it less dependent on colonial support.
• emergence of the European Economic Community (EEC) from 1957 (Britain joined in 1973) helped refocus trade within Europe itself.
• From the 1950s support for empire, especially business interest dwindles in all the main European imperial powers.

Question 6

Explain how economic concerns contributed to decolonisation

Answer 6

• Britain couldn’t afford to maintain the costs of its empire.
  -> They couldn’t afford to fight a series of long colonial wars to maintain their colonies.
• The Great Depression led to poor living conditions in Africa which led to growing discontent with British Rule.

Question 7

What were Britain’s aims for the Gold Coast colony (W Africa)

Answer 7

• slow down the process of decolonisation so it would be beneficial to Britain and not damage their prestige.

Question 8

What was the Burns Constitution (Gold Coast) (W Africa)

Answer 8

• It established a Legislative Council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members.
• It was a majority of elected Africans.
• However, the final power still remained in the hands of the British Governor.

Question 9

How did nationalists put pressure on the British administrators in the Gold Coast (W Africa)

Answer 9

• wave of unrest spread across the country, as protests against British colonial rule gathered momentum.
• The Convention People’s Party (CPP) was founded by Kwame Nkrumah in 1949 and pressurised the British administration to make further concessions.
• The CPP led a campaign of non-cooperation in January 1950 known as ‘positive action’.
• The Legislative Council was enlarged and renamed the Legislative Assembly, and the number of people who could vote for it increased but the British Governor retained ultimate power.

Question 10

Why was Kwame Nkrumah given the position of PM of the Gold Coast in 1952 (W Africa)

Answer 10

• Although Nkrumah was gaoled in 1950, the CPP won two thirds of the seats in the Legislative Assembly in 1951.
• became clear to Burns that the CPP would have to be brought into government in order to bring the troubles under control.
• Nkrumah was therefore released and given the position of prime minister with the members of the CPP talking posts as government ministers.

Question 11

How did events after Nkrumah’s election as PM lead to independence for the Gold Coast (W Africa)

Answer 11

• Nkrumah in government -> Proved it possible for indigenous people to rule responsibly.
• the Togoland Plebiscite –> In 1956, a plebiscite in the neighbouring British Mandate of Togoland delivered an overwhelming vote in favour of unification with the Gold Coast.
  -> They were uniting politically, showed people
  supported independence, most people called for independence.
• Full adult suffrage -> The 1957 elections were held on full adult suffrage which showed that the majority of people wanted independence.

Question 12

Explain nationalism and strikes in Nigeria (W Africa)

Answer 12

• 1945, there was a strike of railway and gov workers involving 30 000 people in Lagos alone.
• The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons was formed in 1944 under the leadership of Nnamdi Azikiwe.
  -> The ultimate aim of their movement was self-governing for Nigeria.
• estimated that between 1945-50 over 100 000 man were lost to strike action.

Question 13

What was the Macpherson Constitution 1951 (Nigeria) (W Africa)

Answer 13

• Greater pressure of change from nationalist movements forced the British to amend the constitution.
• It extended the right to vote and created a National Council of Ministers, answerable to 185-seat Federal House of Representatives
• Each region was allowed its own government as well as an elected assembly.
• The Federal House of Representatives could no overrule these regional governments.
  -> The effect was to exacerbate tensions between the different ethnicities rather than ease them.

Question 14

Why were regional assemblies in each of the 3 major regions created in Nigeria (W Africa)

Answer 14

• The county was regionally, ethnically and religiously divided and there were ethnic tensions between the 2 regions of Nigeria.
• 3 assemblies for each of the three regions (north, east and west) were established, to debate local matters and to advise the British governors in these regions.

Question 15

How did the Macpherson Constitution (W Africa) encourage the growth of nationalism in Nigeria?

Answer 15

There was a growth in political parties based around these regions who began to compete for elections to the new Federal House of Representatives.

Question 16

Which other reforms did the British find themselves pushed into in Nigeria -> how did these to the granting of independence in Oct 1960 (W Africa)

Answer 16

• Britain found themselves being pushed for concessions more quickly than they had originally envisioned.
• a government was formed consisting of 3 British officials and 9 ministers drawn from the
  carious regional political parties in order to strike a balance at the national level between the different regions.
• More power was increasingly devolved to the various regional governments and following federal elections in 1959, moves were made towards full independence for the country in October 1960.

Question 17

Explain the process of decolonisation in Gambia (W Africa)

Answer 17

• After WW2 the pace of constitutional reform increased.
• It received revised constitutions in 1954, 1960 and 1962.
• Following general elections in 1962, Britain granted full internal self-government the following year.
• It achieved independence on in February 1965 as a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth.

Question 18

to what extent did British actions contribute to decolonisation in West Africa

Answer 18

• British policy emphasised economic development which helped the growth of nationalism.
• introducing political reform increased the growth of nationalist parties.

Question 19

to what extent were other factors contributing to decolonisation in W Africa

Answer 19

• Competency of nationalists once they were given government positions – showed that they were capable of governing.
• Nationalist groups and individuals who were agitating for reforms and independence -> Got widespread support.
  -> Demands for reform compelled British colonial administrations to introduce reforms faster than they had originally hoped/intended.

Question 20

What was the Tanganyika Groundnut scheme

Answer 20

• In 1946, Britain (and many other countries) experienced a severe shortage of cooking fats.
• From this emerged the idea of growing in Tanganyika large quantities of groundnuts which could be processed into cooking oil and sold to the world economy.
• The terrain proved too difficult to cultivate and the scheme was abandoned in 1951 – after costing £49m.
• The land was turned into an uncultivatable dust bowl.

Impact:
- The failure of the scheme provokes East African peasants into supporting nationalist movements.

Question 21

what was the Tanganyikan African Nationalist Union

Answer 21

• Led by Julius Nyerere.
• It had massive support.
• Nyerere demanded self-government and threatened strikes and boycotts.

Question 22

Why did Britain come to accept Tanganyika’s independence

Answer 22

• Britain was aware that Tanganyika had little economic or strategic importance.
• Tanganyika was granted independence as Tanzania in 1961.

Question 23

Why did Britain decide to grant independence to Uganda

Answer 23

• Because of the tribal differences, Uganda seemed on the verge of becoming ungovernable -> they could only maintain control through repression.
• Britain decided it was best to pull out as soon as possible.
• It was granted independence in October 1962.

Question 24

Why did the Kikuyu tribe resort to violent protest in the 1950s? (Kenya)

Answer 24

• Long simmering Kikuyu grievances at their treatment by white settlers erupted into violence, when white people sought to mechanise farming and displace the peasant growers.
• Many of the most desperate among the Kikuyu to resort to violence and led to the Mau Mau uprising between 1952 and 1956.

Question 25

How did the Mau Mau Rebellion weaken the British colonial administration in Kenya?

Answer 25

• The British crushed the rebellion with great ruthlessness and successfully divided the Kikuyu people; but in doing do, they weakened their moral authority and support for the nationalists increased,
• In March 1959, eleven prisoners were beaten to death at Hola Camp. Outrage in Britain grew as it emerged that no one would be prosecuted for any offence.

Question 26

What happened at the London Conference in January 1960? (Kenya) and what was the impact

Answer 26

• It was attended by white and black Kenyan politicians.
• The ban on African political movements was lifted.
• A constitution was devised which gave elected Africans a majority in the Kenyan legislature.

Impact :
- Once the principles of self-government under a majority rule was established, independence was inevitable.
- Kenya became independent under Kenyatta in 1963.

Question 27

Explain the creation of the Central African Federation (CAF)

Answer 27

• the merging of Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland -created in 1953.
• created to provide an effective counter-weight to South Africa and prevent apartheid being implemented in these areas too.
• constitution included some protection for African rights e.g. discriminatory laws against Africans could be vetoed by Britain.
• black people in the CAF earned less that 1/10 of white incomes.

Impact:
- Powerful African nationalist movements emerged in al three territories, led by nationalists who were suspicious of Britain’s intentions.
- The white governors of the CAF responded fiercely and Nationalist leaders were arrested and imprisoned: actions which brought increasing disorder.

Question 28

Explain the development of independence in Nyasaland

Answer 28

• White people were concerned by increasing disorder and growing support for Dr Hastings Banda (and the NAC).
• Governor of Nyasaland, Sir Robert Armitage, feared the collapse of British authority and declared a state of emergency in March 1959, supposedly to prevent an armed coup, which banned the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) and Banda.
• An independent inquiry, the Devlin Commission, condemned the Nyasaland government’s actions – accusing it of running a police state.
• 1960-61, the British government ordered the release of nationalist leaders in Nyasaland and in July 1960, Nyasaland was given a constitution which ensured a black majority in its legislative council which paved the way for majority rule and independence.

Question 29

Explain the end of the Central African Federation

Answer 29

• black leaders were now in a stronger position to campaign for independence from the Federation.
• The Monckton Commission 1960 hastened the CAF’s demise by condemning racial rule.
• October 1962, elections in Norther Rhodesia under the new constitution, resulted in victory for African parties, the two largest of which united to demand secession.
• The Victoria Falls Conference agreed the dissolvement of the Federation for the 31 December 1963.

Question 30

explain the development of independence in Southern Rhodesia

Answer 30

• Whites refused to concede black majority rule and believed that the ‘winds of change’ policy shift was a betrayal of their own ‘kith and kin’.
• new gov was determined to achieve independence under white rule and it saw the Federation as an obstacle to this.
• 1965, the pm of Rhodesia, Ian Smith, illegally declared Southern Rhodesia (Rhodesia) to be independent after he was certain Britain would not use force against him.
• Rhodesia became a republic and the country was plunged into a long guerrilla war, the Bush War, between the ruling white settlers and the African nationalists.

Question 31

Summarise the resulting independence in Southern Africa

Answer 31

• Northern Rhodesia: became Zambia under Kaunda with provision for the emergence of a Black African majority government.
  -> granted independence and joined the commonwealth in 1964.
• Nyasaland: became Malawi under Banda, also with black majority rule and as a member of the
  Commonwealth in 1964.
• Southern Rhodesia under Ian Smith as pm retained a white-dominated government and in 1965 declared UDI as -> became Rhodesia.

Question 32

to what extent did British actions contribute to decolonisation in Southern Africa

Answer 32

• Reports/Commissions led to reforms for black majority rule in N Rhodesian and Nyasaland.
• Granting independence to Zambia and Malawi led to Ian Smith to take Rhodesia.
• 1960 Cape Town Macmillan ‘winds of change speech.
• Creation of the CAF.

Question 33

to what extent did other factors contribute to decolonisation in Southern Africa

Answer 33

• Black nationalist movements / protests.
• White settler authority suppression/nationalism.
• Apartheid affects timing and British policy as well as emboldens Rhodesia.

Question 34

Why did nationalists movement grow in African

Answer 34

• Black soldiers fought alongside white and the colonies expected some reward but Britain’s reluctance brought disillusionment and impatience.
• rapid post-war economic growth, but sometimes local people were not always sufficiently skilled to benefit from the job opportunities and some development
  came at the expense of tradition farming and employment.
  -> Gold Coast, Nairobi, there was a surplus of educated youth, unwilling to take manual employment – because of efforts to improve education.
• Charismatic and Western educated leaders – key figures able to unite different ethnic groups and factions were crucial for the emergence of nationalist independence movements.
  -> All learnt to think critically, absorbing political ideas about nationalism, liberalism, socialism and Marxism which challenged imperial rule.

Question 35

what was the Action Group of Nigeria

Answer 35

• Dominated by the Yoruba (SW), resisted the concept of unitary government.
• Represented the comparatively economically advanced west.
• Despite divisions arising from conflict with
  the Yoruba community, its leader, Awolowo proved a formidable debater and political campaigner.
• sought autonomous states within a federal structure.

Question 36

what was the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)

Answer 36

• Dominated by the Igbo (SE) , under the
  commanding personality of Azikiwe, who owned newspapers through which he argued the nationalist cause.
• It had the widest appeal.

Question 37

To what extend did the ethnic tensions slow down the path to independence?

Answer 37

• North Islamic area had decidedly anti-western nationalist sentiments.
  -> There were also conflicts between the Yoruba and the Igbo which grew more acute as they competed for control.\
• Southern nationalism was more influenced by European ideas, professional organisations of teachers, lawyers and traders and independent Christian churches.
• All the different interest groups made negotiations with the British over constitutional change a difficult exercise.
• took time to create a constitution that was workable and acceptable to all parties.
• cooperation only happened as a result of necessity in the face of an overall goal rather than the product of an emerging sense of national identity.

Question 38

Why was the decision of the Rhodesian Front to declare UDI in 1965 so damaging to Britain’s process of decolonisation

Answer 38

• rejected as illegal and unconstitutional by Britain, the United Nations and most of the rest of the world.
• Britain imposed sanctions but they proved of little use as South Africa refused to cooperate.
  Britain received criticism from the Commonwealth, accusing Britain of betraying commonwealth ideals.
• triggered a 15 year long civil war between white people and black nationalist in what Smith called Rhodesia

Question 39

What were the causes of the Mau Mau rebellion (Kenya)

Answer 39

• Kikuyu had found themselves progressively squeezed off land in the ‘white highlands’ to accommodate an expanding number of white settlers.
• confined to reservation lands which were inadequate for their needs.
• Unemployment and poor conditions in the towns.

Question 40

to what extent was Britain to blame for the Mau Mau rebellion

Answer 40

• regime based on privileged white settlers who were determined that Kenya would be dominated politically and economically by them.
• Many of the grievances were directly caused by actions of the white settlers.
• governor, Sir Philip Mitchell, announced in1948 that self-government would not be possible in the near future which fuelled the frustrations.

Question 41

Who was Dedan Kimathi (Mau Mau Rebellion)

Answer 41

• Leader of the Mau Mau rebellion.
• He believed in compelling fellow Kikuyu by way of oath to bring solidarity to the independence
  movement.
• Used guerrilla tactics to fight against the British.
• Kimathi is a national hero of the Kenyan people.
• Kenyan government regretted that it took 40 years for the group to be officially recognised despite the sacrifices the Mau Mau had made for Kenya’s independence.

Question 42

What methods did the Mau Mau use

Answer 42

• Intimidated people to take their oath and killed people if they refused.
• Committing extreme violence.
• The Mau Mau military strategy was mainly guerrilla attacks launched under the cover of dark.
• used stolen weapons such as guns, as well as weapons such as machetes.
• supporters killed 95 Europeans and 13 000 black people.

Question 43

How did the British respond to put down the rebellion

Answer 43

• State of Emergency was declared in 1952 which suspended all black African political rights and the Mau Mau were treated as political terrorists.
• Supressing the uprising cost Britain £55m.
• British security forces formed ‘strike squads’ to carry out assassinations, show civilians in cold blood and massacred the innocent with the guilty.
• 10s of 1000s of the Kikuyu population were resettled in hundreds of gaol-villages where there was a regime of searches, curfews, restrictions, interrogations and forced labour.

Question 44

What were the Hola Camp Atrocities March 1959 (Mau Mau Rebellion)

Answer 44

• 11 Mau Mau detainees were beaten to death and 77 received serious injuries.

Question 45

How was the rebellion and British response reported in the British media

Answer 45

• The British press reported the incident at Hola Camp.
  -> Outrage in Britain grew as it emerged that no one would be prosecuted for any offence.
• The state of emergency was not lifted until 1960, but the British government was left embarrasses and shocked.

Question 46

What were the consequences of the Mau Mau rebellion for the British

Answer 46

• showed that the colonial government were poorly equipped to deal with large-scale insurrection.

Question 47

What were the consequences for the Kenyan nationalists after the Mau Mau Rebellion

Answer 47

• Over 200 000 Mau Mua fighters were killed during the emergency.
• The ban on African political movements was lifted in a conference in London in January 1960 and a constitution was devised which gave elected Africans a majority in the Kenyan legislature.
• Kenya became independence in December 1963

Question 48

Summarise how the Mau Mau undermined the British

Answer 48

• British rule was supposedly based on equality and justice and some of the methods used were
  questionable and questioned British motives in Africa.
• Part of the reason why Kenya was granted
  independence.
• Strengthened nationalist movements in Kenya and across Africa.

Question 49

Explain how the Mau Mau were not able to undermine the British

Answer 49

• Made Britain prepared for events elsewhere – it wasn’t going to commit troops to insurgencies
  elsewhere and became more conciliatory.
• Easy for the British to portray the rebels as fanatics because of their actions.
• Lots of Kenyan’s didn’t support the rebellion.