Deck 1

Question 1

Finish the quotation: “whatever man desires…

Answer 1

…he desires it under the aspect of good.” - Aquinas

Question 2

Finish the quotation: “good is to be done and pursued…

Answer 2

…and evil is to be avoided.” - Aquinas

Question 3

Define ‘Synderesis’

Answer 3

“Synderesis” is a technical term from scholastic philosophy, signifying the innate principle in the moral consciousness of every person which directs the agent to good and restrains him from evil.

Question 4

Finish the quotation: ‘‘Acts are good or bad in themselves…

Answer 4

…and we need to use our reason correctly’’ - Aquinas

Question 5

What is our purpose according to Aquinas?

Answer 5

Above all we are made ‘‘in the image of god’’ and thus the supreme good must be development of this image- perfection. Seeing happiness as beginning now and continuing in the next life time, the purpose of morality is to able us to reach our (telos) which is narrowed down to being closer to God.

Question 6

What is the principle of practical reason?

Answer 6

The assumption that, by nature, we seek to do good and avoid evil- or have an innate knowledge of first principles (the primary precepts).

Question 7

Define primary precepts.

Answer 7

Principles know innately which define the ration ends or goods of human existence. followed to achieve our purpose.

Question 8

Define secondary precepts.

Answer 8

Application of the primary precepts using human reason, which are not absolute. As they might change over time, as our society changes.

Question 9

What are apparent goods?

Answer 9

Acts done from reason which do not correspond to the nature law. Which are mistakenly believed as Real Good (e.g. Hitler’s genocide).

Question 10

What are real goods?

Answer 10

Acts done from human reason which correspond to natural law.

Question 11

What is the doctrine of double effect?

Answer 11

Double effect refers to situations where there is an intended outcome and another significant but unintentional outcome. According to Natural Law, it is our intentions that are important, not the consequences of our actions. Double effect would not allow you to perform an action where an unintended outcome had devestating effects. The unintended effect has to be PROPORTIONATE. What this actually means, critics say, is that Natural Law becomes like Utilitarianism.

Question 12

Name the primary precepts.

Answer 12

◾Protect and preserve human life
◾Reproduce and Educate your offspring
◾know God and live in Society
(As described by Bernard Hoose).

Question 13

To which branch of ethics does Natural law belong to?

Answer 13

Normative, Deontological but coming from Teleological (world view as Aristotle argues), we have a purpose and born with Synderesis. (Aquinas’ natural law has roman catholic foundations, but you don’t even need to believe in god to become a follower of natural law.)

Question 14

Why is Natural law a mixture between Deontology and Teleology?

Answer 14

Because in defining the Primary Precepts, Aquinas was stating ‘self-evident principles’ that are universal and absolute - they are part of our very nature as humans. This sounds deontological. However, looking at Aristotle’s notion of telos as excellence, we see that the Primary Precepts are not concerned with actions themselves, but with our telos or purpose. As such, the Primary Precepts are actually teleological.

Question 15

Give examples of actions that contradict primary precepts.

Answer 15

◾theft
◾lying
◾fornicating
◾committing adultery
◾killing the innocent
◾masturbation

Question 16

Why do Natural law theorists disagree whether ‘Do not masturbate’ is a secondary precept?

Answer 16

Aquinas felt that masturbation went against the natural end (telos) of sex, which is procreation. This means that ‘Do not masturbate’ is an absolute secondary precept. However, in modern infertility treatment, masturbation might be used to assist procreation through artificial insemination by a husband. On this issue, Natural Law theorists disagree about whether masturbation is unnatural, and therefore disagree about the secondary precept ‘Do not masturbate’.

Question 17

Explain the ‘Efficient’ and ‘Final’ cause.

Answer 17

This is Aristotle’s distinction between what gets things done (efficient cause) and the end product (final cause). With humans, it is the accomplishment of the end product that equates to ‘good’. An example is sexuality – an efficient cause of sex is enjoyment: because humans enjoy sex, the species has survived through procreation. However, the final cause of sex (the thing God designed it for) is procreation. Therefore sex is only good if procreation is possible.

Question 18

Explain what is meant by ‘Casuistry’.

Answer 18

Casuistry, from the Latin for ‘case’, refers to the process of applying principles to individual cases. In the Roman Catholic Church, this means applying the universal principles of Natural Law to specific situations. This is done in a logical way, as some principles have logical consequences. For example, if it is in principle wrong to kill innocent human beings, it follows that bombing civilian targets (such as Dresden in WW2) is wrong. However, if it is accepted that killing in self defence is okay, we could justify an air attack on Afghanistan on these grounds. Innocent people might die, but that is not the aim of the action, so the doctrine of double effect comes in to play.

Question 19

Strengths of the Natural law?

Answer 19

1. Rational – Natural Law uses practical reason, it is a common-sense approach.
2. Objective – Natural Law gives us rules that are true independently of our individual thoughts and desires.
3. Flexible - allows for secondary precepts to vary according to culture, as they are the practical working out of the universal primary precepts.
4. Autonomy - Natural Law allows the individual, using reason, to work out for themselves what is objectively right and true, not relying on religious authority, scripture or tradition.
5. God - Doesn’t require belief in God, as it is based on empirical observations of our nature.

Question 20

Weaknesses of Natural law?

Answer 20

1. Too simplistic - Humans do not have a single ‘fixed’ human nature.
2. Outcomes - Leads to immoral outcomes e.g. not allowing contraception led to spread of AIDS and overpopulation in Africa
3. Cultural Relativism - Neilsen questions the unchanging nature of Primary Precepts in Natural Law, using Cultural Relativism. Gareth Moore argues our nature is a product of culture and society.
4. Agape - Jesus was opposed to legalism, and broke rules in order to do the most loving thing.
5. Conflicting rules - As with any absolutist theory, what if two universal rules come into conflict with each other?