deck 1

Question 1

Cite a scientific article in a bibliography according to MLA standards.

Answer 1

Nom de famille, Prénom. “Titre de l’article.” Titre de la revue*, Volume, Numéro, Année, pages.**

Question 2

What historical period is represented by the play La fille du Kacik?

Answer 2

The play La fille du Kacik is set in 1493, after Columbus’s first departure from Haïti for Spain. The first act takes place at Le Fort de la Nativité, which was built in December 1492 in the north of present-day Haiti, in the bay of Fort-Liberté. This setting places the play during the early period of Spanish colonialism on the island of Hispaniola and deals with the tensions and conflicts arising between the Spanish colonizers and the indigenous Taíno people.

Question 3

Why did Haitians at the end of the 19th century have an interest in the indigenous period?

Answer 3

international commemoration of the 4th centenary of Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the Americas in 1892.
This event was widely celebrated by Western nations, particularly Spain, which saw it as a reminder of its historical relevance. The celebrations included academic conferences, the reproduction of Columbus’s caravels, and the Colombian World’s Fair in Chicago in 1893, where Haiti participated. For Haiti, this global focus on Columbus prompted a need to define a new relationship to European colonization and to Columbus himself.

In this context, reflecting on the pre-Columbian history and the fate of the indigenous Taíno people became important for articulating a distinct Haitian identity in contrast to the colonizers’ narrative. Henri Chauvet, one of the authors explaining Haiti’s position at the Chicago exhibition, even referred to Haiti as “the daughter of Colomb,” highlighting the complex relationship with the figure of Columbus while still needing to establish a unique national narrative.

approaching centenary of Haitian independence in 1904. The preface of La Fille du Kacik explicitly states that the author offers his book to the Association of the Centenary, indicating a deliberate connection between the play’s focus on the indigenous past and the upcoming centennial celebrations. Intellectuals at the time viewed the indigenous period as a “fertile period” to celebrate the idea of independence, framing it as a long history of resistance against colonial powers. This led to the creation of the Association du centenaire de l’indépendance haitien in 1892.

The play La Fille du Kacik itself, published in 1894, exemplifies this trend by focusing on the conflict between the Spanish colonizers and the Taíno people in 1493. The play’s preface suggests that it aims to highlight the contrast in morals between the Spanish and the inhabitants of Haiti at the time of discovery and reminds readers that before their African ancestors, an indigenous race fell as martyrs. The author intended to show that he does not separate the African from the Indian on the land discovered by Columbus.

Furthermore, the rediscovery and reinterpretation of the indigenous past served as a way to forge a sense of national unity in Haiti, despite the diverse origins of its population. By emphasizing a shared history of suffering under European colonization, a link was imagined between the Taínos and the Haitian revolutionaries. Emile Nau’s L’histoire des Caciques d’Haïti (1854) significantly influenced this perspective, asserting that the history of Taíno colonization and resistance was the first part of Haitian national history. This idea of a connection through shared suffering on the same land, rather than a direct biological link, gained traction. Texts like La Fille du Kacik, influenced by Nau’s work, contributed to this imagining of a national community rooted in the island’s earliest history of resistance.

Question 4

What possible link is suggested in the sources between the indigenous period and the revolutionary period in Haiti?

Answer 4

The violent acts described in Kaonabo’s areyto in La Fille du Kacik are referenced in the Proclamation of 1804 and J.J. Dessalines’s discourse.

• Model of Resistance: The Declaration of Independence in Haiti references the Taíno people as an alternative model to French civilization, suggesting that they preferred extermination to the loss of freedom. This presents the indigenous population as an early example of resistance against colonial oppression, a spirit that the revolutionaries aimed to embody. Laurent Dubois argues that the nation’s new leaders mobilized the spirit of the indigenous dead to legitimize their claim to the land.
• Shared Anti-Colonial Struggle: From 1804 to 1854, the Taínos were increasingly taken as anticolonial models. The idea “on va faire juste comme les Taïnos ont fait” emerged, framing the indigenous resistance against the Spanish as a precursor to the Haitian struggle against the French. This past Amerindian history gradually became part of a national heritage, a way to imagine a unified national community despite cultural diversity by focusing on a shared history of anticolonial struggle.
• Connection Through Suffering: Émile Nau’s L’histoire des Caciques d’Haïti (1854) significantly shaped this link by insisting that the history of Taíno colonization and resistance constituted the first episode of Haitian national history. Nau emphasized a special connection between Haitians and the indigenous people of Hispaniola, not biological, but through the shared suffering endured under European oppression. He stated, “« Pouvons-nous ignorer les origines et le passé de notre pays…L’Africain et l’Indien se sont donné la main dans les chaînes »”.
• Symbolic Representation in La Fille du Kacik: The violent acts described in Kaonabo’s areyto in La Fille du Kacik are said to reference the Proclamation of 1804 and the discourse of Jean-Jacques Dessalines. This suggests a continuity of themes, particularly concerning resistance and the consequences of colonial violence, across the indigenous and revolutionary periods as represented in literature. The play’s preface also encourages remembering that before the African ancestors, an indigenous race fell as martyrs, implying a historical continuity of suffering and resistance on the island. Furthermore, the preface draws a parallel between Caonabo, a key indigenous figure in the play, and Henri Christophe and Toussaint Louverture, major leaders of the Haitian Revolution, as figures of protest against spoliation, tyranny, and slavery.
• Assertion of Belonging: The use of the term “Indigène” in the Declaration of Independence is highlighted as an assertion of belonging tied to place, potentially echoing the original indigenous inhabitants. The adoption of the name “Haiti,” a Taíno word meaning rugged and mountainous, for the newly independent nation was itself a way to emphasize a break with Europe and connect with the island’s original identity.

In essence, the link suggested between the indigenous period and the Haitian Revolution is largely based on the idea of a shared history of resistance against European colonizers and a common experience of suffering on the island. The memory of the Taíno people and their struggle served as a source of inspiration and a means of forging a national identity rooted in the land and its history of opposition to foreign domination.

Question 5

How are women represented in La Fille du Kacik according to some research questions?

Answer 5

Some questions explore how femininity and race intersect to create oppression for Creole women and why women might be represented in a passive manner in the play.

Question 6

What is meant by ‘Haitian Indigenism’?

Answer 6

Haitian Indigenism involved a reappropriation and reimagining of indigenous identity in Haïti, especially during the American occupation.

Haitian Indigenism refers to a complex and evolving cultural and intellectual movement in Haiti that emphasizes and reinterprets the indigenous heritage of the island, particularly the legacy of the Taíno people, to forge a distinct Haitian national identity, especially in the context of resistance against foreign oppression.
Reappropriation and Reinterpretation of Indigenous Identity: It was not about a literal return to a precolonial Taíno identity but rather a reinterpretation of this heritage to construct a unique Haitian national identity. This involved valuing Taíno symbols, such as the name “Haïti” itself, which means “rugged, mountainous land” in the Taíno Arawak language. The adoption of an Amerindian name after independence was unique in the Caribbean and linked Haiti to African decolonization rather than American models, emphasizing a break with Europe.
Nationalism and Resistance: Haitian Indigenism is closely linked to Haitian nationalism and served as a form of cultural resistance against foreign domination. This is particularly evident in the context of the American occupation of Haiti (1915-1934), which acted as a catalyst for Haitian nationalism. The indigéniste movement provided a cultural foundation for this nationalism, celebrating indigenous heroes and denouncing imperialism. The core idea was to assert sovereignty and a national identity distinct from both European and African influences, rooted in the territory itself.
Construction of National Unity: By focusing on a shared, albeit reinterpreted, indigenous past, Haitian Indigenism aimed to contribute to the construction of an inclusive national identity that transcended social and racial divisions within Haiti. It offered a neutral reference point for a diverse population. The idea of a connection through shared suffering under colonial powers, both the Taínos under the Spanish and the enslaved Africans under the French, was central to this unifying narrative.

Historical Context and Evolution: The interest in the indigenous past varied across different periods in Haitian history.
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Early Period (1803 onwards): A vague identification existed between the revolutionaries and indigenous peoples across the Americas, with the Incas used as a symbol of resistance.
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1804-1854: The Taínos of Hispaniola were explicitly taken as anticolonial models, with the sentiment “on va faire juste comme les Taïnos ont fait” emerging. This past became a national heritage used to imagine national unity.
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Post-1854: The publication of Emile Nau’s L’histoire des Caciques d’Haïti significantly changed the discourse, asserting that the history of Taíno resistance was the first part of Haitian national history and emphasizing a link through shared suffering rather than biology. This influenced later literary works like Henri Chauvet’s La Fille du Kacik (1894), which reflects this interest in the indigenous past.
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La Revue Indigène: This 20th-century intellectual movement was associated with the concept of indigeneity and explored the tension between embracing diaspora and asserting territorial claims.
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Short-Lived but Politically Significant: While maintaining a strong anticolonial orientation, Haitian Indigenism as a dominant force was relatively short-lived. It was also noted that it could be compatible with authoritarian regimes.
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Not Necessarily About Ancestry: Amanda T. Perry argues that the meaning of indigeneity in Haiti was less about actual ancestry than about a political stance against foreign aggression.

Question 7

How was Haitian Indigenism linked to nationalism and resistance?

Answer 7

Indigenism had a close link to Haitian nationalism and served as a symbol of resistance to foreign oppression.

Haitian Indigenism was profoundly linked to Haitian nationalism and served as a crucial element in the country’s resistance against foreign domination.

• Indigenism as Cultural Resistance: The indigéniste movement in Haiti, particularly evident during the American occupation (1915-1934), acted as a significant form of cultural resistance. As highlighted by Amanda Perry, this movement was not simply about returning to a precolonial identity but rather about reinterpreting the indigenous heritage to construct a distinct Haitian national identity and to reaffirm Haitian sovereignty in the face of foreign influence.
• Providing a Cultural Basis for Nationalism: Perry emphasizes the close tie between indigénisme and Haitian nationalism. The focus on indigenous identity provided a cultural foundation for this nationalism, serving as a unifying symbol against foreign oppression. This movement aimed to define a Haitian identity that was neither purely European nor African, but uniquely rooted in the history and territory of Haiti. The valorization of Taíno symbols, such as the name “Haïti” itself, became a key aspect of this nationalist expression.
• Assertion of National Belonging: The very concept of “indigène” (indigenous) was used to assert national belonging and differentiate Haitians from colonizers. During the War of Independence, early historians frequently used “indigène” to describe nonwhite inhabitants of the island, including both African-born and creole people, explicitly excluding the white population. This term served to mediate between black and mixed-race actors in the formation of a national body. The Declaration of Independence further solidified this by referring to the members of the new state as “Indigène,” capitalizing the term to position it as a claimed concept tied to place and dependent on the expulsion of the “French”.
• Moral Claim to Sovereignty: In the 20th century, Haitian indigénistes continued to utilize this concept to make a moral claim to sovereignty, especially in opposition to foreign intervention. Perry argues that “indigeneity” in Haiti was less about ancestry than about a political position against foreign aggression. By appropriating indigenous status, the movement aimed to unite the Haitian population and justify the exclusion of those seen as threats to national sovereignty.
• Catalyst During Occupation: The American occupation of Haiti acted as a significant catalyst for the strengthening of Haitian national sentiment, and the indigéniste movement became a vital component of this resistance. It provided a cultural and historical narrative through which Haitians could assert their distinct identity and their right to self-governance against foreign control.

In essence, Haitian Indigenism was not merely an academic or cultural trend but a dynamic force deeply intertwined with the struggle for national identity and sovereignty. It provided a historical and cultural framework for Haitian nationalism, fueling resistance against foreign powers by emphasizing a shared connection to the land and a history of opposition to colonial oppression, symbolized by the indigenous Taíno people.

Question 8

How did Indigenism contribute to the construction of Haitian national identity?

Answer 8

Indigenism aimed to construct an inclusive Haitian national identity that transcended social and racial divisions.

Haitian Indigenism played a crucial role in the construction of Haitian national identity by providing a unique historical and cultural foundation for the nation, particularly after its independence and during periods of foreign influence. Here’s how it contributed:

• Reinterpreting Indigenous Heritage for National Unity: Haitian Indigenism involved a reappropriation and reinterpretation of the island’s indigenous Taíno heritage. It wasn’t about a literal return to a precolonial past but rather about selectively embracing and re-signifying indigenous symbols, values, and history to forge a distinct national identity for the newly independent Haiti. This was crucial for creating a sense of shared identity among a population of diverse origins, primarily composed of formerly enslaved Africans and people of mixed race. The emphasis on a shared history on the island, predating European arrival, provided a common ground for national belonging.
• Establishing a Break from European Colonialism: The adoption of the Taíno name “Haïti” for the new nation was a significant act that symbolized a deliberate break from European colonial nomenclature and an embrace of the island’s pre-colonial identity. This choice distinguished Haiti from other Caribbean colonies and linked its independence more closely to African decolonization efforts, emphasizing a rejection of European dominance.
• Creating a Narrative of Shared Resistance and Suffering: Indigenism contributed to national identity by constructing a historical narrative that linked the resistance of the Taíno people against Spanish colonizers to the struggle of enslaved Africans against the French. Figures like Émile Nau argued that the history of Taíno colonization and resistance was the first chapter of Haitian national history, emphasizing a shared experience of suffering under European oppression that connected the indigenous past with the Haitian present. This narrative fostered a sense of continuity and collective identity rooted in the land’s history of resistance.
• Serving as a Foundation for Anti-Colonial Nationalism: Particularly during the American occupation of Haiti (1915-1934), Indigenism became a powerful force for nationalism and resistance against foreign interference. It provided a cultural and historical basis for asserting Haitian sovereignty and a distinct national character in opposition to American influence. By celebrating indigenous heritage, Haitian intellectuals and artists sought to reaffirm Haitian identity and cultural independence.
• Unifying Diverse Social Groups: By focusing on a shared indigenous past and a common experience of colonial oppression, Indigenism aimed to transcend social and racial divisions within Haitian society. It offered a neutral reference point for a diverse population seeking to forge a unified national identity that was neither solely European nor solely African. The idea of a shared ancestral connection to the land, even if more symbolic than strictly biological, helped to foster a sense of national unity.
• Assertion of Territorial Belonging: The concept of “indigène” itself, as used in the Declaration of Independence to refer to the citizens of the new nation, served as a powerful assertion of belonging tied to the territory of Haiti, differentiating Haitians from the French colonizers. This emphasis on indigeneity underscored the idea that the land belonged to its inhabitants who had suffered under colonial rule, both indigenous and African descendants.

In summary, Haitian Indigenism was a dynamic intellectual and cultural movement that played a vital role in shaping Haitian national identity by reclaiming and reinterpreting the indigenous past, establishing a distinct cultural identity apart from European influences, creating a unifying narrative of shared resistance and suffering, fueling nationalist sentiments against foreign intervention, and fostering a sense of belonging to the land among a diverse population.

Question 9

Describe the lwa (spirit) Papa Legba in Haitian Vodou.

Answer 9

Papa Legba is the master of the crossroads (maître des carrefours) and is seen as the one who opens the path for return.

Papa Legba is a significant and multifaceted lwa (spirit) in Haitian Vodou. He is primarily recognized as the master of the crossroads. This role is central to his function as the divinity of communication and understanding.

Here are key aspects of Papa Legba as depicted in the sources:

• The Opener of Ways: Papa Legba is seen as the one who “opens the barrier”, meaning he stands at the spiritual crossroads and opens the door for communication between the mortal human world and the divine realm of the loa. Invoking him is crucial at the beginning of any Vodou ceremony to allow other spirits to enter and interact with the devotees.
• Master of Crossroads, Roads, and Ditches: The sources emphasize his dominion over liminal spaces, referring to him as the “maît’e trois carrefours, maît’e trois chemins, maît’e trois rigoles” (master of three crossroads, three roads, three ditches). This highlights his control over transitions and connections.
• A Link to the Ancestral Realm: Papa Legba is identified as the “old god of Guinea”, with Guinea being the spiritual homeland of the loa and the place where the ancestors reside [59, note 17]. This connection underscores his ancient wisdom and his role as an intermediary between the living and the dead.
• Appearance and Representation: During a Vodou ceremony in Gouverneurs de la rosée, Legba “had taken under the arbour the form of Fleurimond but had remodelled it to his venerable image, according to his immemorial age: the shoulders stooped and supported, all panting with exhaustion, on the crutch of a twisted branch”. This description portrays him as an elderly figure, often depicted with a limp and a dog, and associated with a hat, reflecting his role as a traveler between worlds.
• Invocation and Offerings: Papa Legba is invoked through specific chants, such as “Papa Legba, l’ouvri barriè-apou nous, ago yé !” (Papa Legba, open the barrier for us, ago yé!). Offerings, including food and drink, are made to him. In Gouverneurs de la rosée, a “macoute” (a bag) filled with provisions was designated for him.
• Role in Spiritual Assistance: Source suggests that Legba helped Manuel with his return in a spiritual manner. While the specifics are not detailed, this indicates his capacity to influence events in the human world.
• Vèvè: As mentioned in source and defined in source, each lwa has a corresponding vèvè, which is a drawing traced on the ground by the houngan (Vodou priest) with flour, representing the loa. The sources do not explicitly describe Papa Legba’s vèvè, but it typically features symbols associated with crossroads, keys, and his other attributes.

In summary, Papa Legba is a foundational lwa in Haitian Vodou, serving as the essential intermediary between the human and spiritual realms. As the master of the crossroads, he holds the key to communication with other spirits and is therefore invoked at the outset of most Vodou ceremonies. His ancient origins and his connection to the ancestral realm further solidify his respected and pivotal position within the Vodou pantheon.

Question 10

What is the role of kounbit mentioned in relation to Gouverneurs de la rosée?

Answer 10

TL;DR
The coumbite in Gouverneurs de la rosée represents more than just a farming technique. It embodies a tradition of community solidarity, a symbol of hope for future collective action against adversity, and a pathway to reconciliation and the revival of life in Fonds-Rouge, particularly in relation to accessing and distributing water.

Kounbit* (also spelled coumbite) refers to communal work or a work party where people come together to help with tasks.

The term “coumbite”, a form of communal work, plays a significant role in Gouverneurs de la rosée. The sources illustrate this in several ways:

• Past Tradition of Communal Help: The novel opens with a flashback to a time when coumbite was a regular practice, symbolizing harmony and mutual aid within the community. Bienaimé reminisces about these times of communal work, highlighting an era of entraide (mutual help) and abundance. This past is contrasted with the present harsh and desolate state of the land.
• Coumbite as a Social Event: A specific coumbite is described at Casamajor Beaubrun’s field, involving various neighbors working together, with Rosanna preparing food for the community. This demonstrates the social and cooperative nature of the coumbite, where people willingly lend their labor. The chanting and energy of the coumbite are also depicted, although this energy wanes as the day progresses.
• Manuel’s Vision for the Future: Manuel envisions a future where the community unites in a “grand coumbite des travailleurs de la terre pour défricher la misère et planter la vie nouvelle” (a great coumbite of the land workers to clear misery and plant new life). This signifies his belief that collective effort is the key to overcoming their hardship and creating a better future. He sees the potential for reconciliation and renewed life through such a unified endeavor.
• The Water Project and the Need for a General Coumbite: When Manuel discovers the water source, he stresses that everyone’s help is needed to build the main canal and smaller ones for individual gardens. He proposes a general coumbite for the water project, emphasizing the need for peace and reconciliation among the divided community to achieve this common goal. He believes that the shared suffering caused by the drought and the promise of renewal through water will make the existing divisions disappear in the face of this collective task. Annaïse is tasked with persuading the women of the need for this general coumbite.
• Symbol of Unity and Cooperation: The concept of the coumbite becomes a central metaphor for the unity and cooperation that Manuel believes is essential for the community’s survival and prosperity. His experience in Cuba, where disunity was overcome through a huelga (strike) based on shared plight, informs his understanding of the power of collective action, akin to a large coumbite.
• Community Commitment to Collective Action: After Manuel’s death, Larivoire speaks for the community, offering their commitment to the water project. Individuals like Nérestan and Josaphat pledge to help with tasks such as digging the canal and planting, echoing the spirit of the coumbite.

Question 11

How are the peasants’ spiritual practices represented in Gouverneurs de la rosée?

Answer 11

The peasants’ lives are intertwined with Vodou practices. They seek protection from spirits and consult with figures like the houngan (Vodou priest) Dorméus.

The spiritual practices of the peasants in Gouverneurs de la rosée are prominently represented through the lens of Haitian Vodou, which is deeply integrated into their lives. The novel portrays Vodou as a source of community, hope, tradition, and solace in the face of hardship, while also presenting a critical perspective on its efficacy as the sole solution to their problems.

Here’s a breakdown of how these practices are depicted:

• Central Role in Community Life: Vodou is not depicted as a separate religious activity but as interwoven with the daily lives and beliefs of the inhabitants of Fonds-Rouge. When faced with the devastating drought, the community naturally turns to Vodou rituals in hopes of divine intervention.
• Vodou Ceremonies: The novel vividly describes a Vodou ceremony led by the houngan (Vodou priest) Dorméus. This ceremony is a significant community event, involving:
  
  • Invocation of Lwa: The ceremony begins with the invocation of Papa Legba, the master of the crossroads and the divinity of communication, to “open the barrier” between the human and spirit worlds. This is essential to allow other loa to interact with the community.
  • Vèvè: Although not explicitly described in detail for Papa Legba, the concept of a vèvè, a magical circle or ideogram drawn to represent a specific loa, is mentioned in the context of the ceremony.
  • Ritualistic Songs and Dances (Yanvalou): The ceremony includes chants and ritual dances, such as the Yanvalou, in which the community actively participates.
  • Offerings: Offerings are made to the loa, as seen with Bienaimé offering a cruche of water to Dorméus for Legba and the provision-filled “macoute” (bag) for Legba’s journey.
  • Possession: The phenomenon of possession by loa is depicted, where individuals like Mérillia and Clairemise become “possessed in flesh and spirit” by the spirits, demonstrating a direct interaction between the divine and the human.
  • Sacrifice: The sacrifice of a rooster is a key part of the ritual, intended to “centre all the supernatural forces in a single living knot, in a burning bush of feathers and blood” and to ensure Legba accepts the sacrifice. The blood is then used to make the sign of the cross on the foreheads of participants.
  • Arrival of Other Lwa: The unexpected arrival of Papa Ogoun, another powerful loa, during the ceremony introduces an element of potential foreboding.
• Lwa (Spirits) and Their Roles: The novel highlights the community’s belief in and interaction with specific loa:
  
  • Papa Legba: As discussed earlier, he is crucial as the gatekeeper to the spirit world.
  • Papa Ogoun: He appears during Legba’s ceremony, demanding his own recognition. Later, Manuel lies wounded before an image of Ogoun. Source suggests Ogoun’s interaction with Manuel carried a sense of caution.
• Belief in Divine Guidance: Délira believes that Papa Legba guided Manuel’s return to Fonds-Rouge. This illustrates the community’s tendency to attribute significant events to spiritual forces.
• Manuel’s Skeptical Perspective: In contrast to the community’s reliance on Vodou, Manuel holds a critical view of their spiritual practices as the primary means of overcoming their hardship, particularly the drought. He considers solely praying to the loa for rain as “foolishness and a waste”.
  
  • He believes in human agency, hard work, and practical solutions, stating that “true ‘Providence’ is the ‘propre vouloir du [] de ne pas accepter le malheur,’ to work the land and control the water themselves”.
  • He dismisses their ceremonies as “des bêtises et des macaqueries” (nonsense and foolishness), considering them “useless and a waste”.
  • Even as he dies, Manuel insists that their past sacrifices to the loa for rain “n’a servi à rien. Parce que ce qui compte, c’est le sacrifice de l’homme” (served no purpose. Because what counts is the sacrifice of man). He urges his mother to seek practical reconciliation rather than relying on spiritual interventions to break the cycle of hatred.
• Contrasting Beliefs and Generational Differences: Manuel’s skepticism represents a departure from the traditional beliefs held by many in the community, including his mother Délira, who initially rebukes him for not giving justice to God. This contrast highlights potential tensions or evolving perspectives within the community regarding spiritual practices in the face of prolonged crisis.

In conclusion, Gouverneurs de la rosée offers a rich portrayal of the peasants’ spiritual practices, primarily through the vibrant depiction of Vodou ceremonies and their deep-seated beliefs in the loa. While acknowledging the comfort and community provided by these traditions, the novel also introduces a critical perspective through Manuel, who advocates for human action and unity as the more effective path to overcoming their dire circumstances.

Question 12

Commenter les éléments « indigénistes » dans Gouverneurs de la rosée, et les éléments qui semblent plutôt résister à la pensée indigéniste dans le roman.

Answer 12

Gouverneurs de la rosée by Jacques Roumain, published in 1944, during the American occupation, can be analyzed for its engagement with éléments « indigénistes » (indigenist elements) and aspects that seem to résister à cette pensée.

Éléments « indigénistes » dans Gouverneurs de la rosée:

Drawing on the definitions of Haitian indigénisme from the sources:

• Valorisation of Haitian Peasant Culture and Traditions: The novel deeply immerses itself in the life and culture of the Haitian peasantry. The detailed depiction of communal work (kounbit) [our conversation history], Haitian Vodou practices [our conversation history], Creole language [our conversation history], and rural social structures directly valorizes the traditions and everyday life of the Haitian people, which aligns with the indigéniste focus on authentic Haitian identity.
• Emphasis on the Land: The profound connection of the peasants to the land and their struggle against the devastating drought underscores a central theme of indigénisme: the importance of the native soil to national identity and sovereignty. The desire to cultivate the land and revive it is a powerful expression of this connection.
• Spirit of Resistance: The resilience of the community in the face of hardship and Manuel’s determination to find water and bring life back to Fonds-Rouge can be seen as an expression of resistance against the oppressive circumstances they face. This resonates with the anti-colonial sentiment inherent in indigénisme, which often emerged in response to foreign influence, as highlighted by the context of the American occupation.
• Community and Unity: Manuel’s vision of a united effort, a “grand coumbite” [our conversation history], to overcome their misery emphasizes the indigéniste ideal of building a strong and inclusive national identity that transcends internal divisions. The call for solidarity and collective action against a common enemy (the drought and despair) aligns with this goal.
• African Roots: While the novel doesn’t explicitly delve into pre-colonial Taíno heritage in detail, the strong presence of Haitian Vodou [our conversation history], with its deep roots in African spiritual traditions, reflects the indigéniste valorization of African cultural heritage as a key component of Haitian identity. Papa Legba, referred to as the “old god of Guinea” [our conversation history], explicitly links Haitian spirituality to its African origins.

Éléments qui semblent plutôt résister à la pensée indigéniste dans le roman:

Despite these indigéniste elements, Gouverneurs de la rosée also presents aspects that might be seen as resisting or offering a more nuanced perspective on this thought:

• Manuel’s Critique of Sole Reliance on Vodou: Manuel’s skepticism towards the community’s exclusive reliance on Vodou to solve their practical problems, like the drought, challenges a potential overemphasis on traditional spiritual practices within indigénisme [our conversation history]. He advocates for human agency, hard work, and practical solutions (“le sacrifice de l’homme”) [our conversation history], suggesting that divine intervention alone is insufficient. This focus on human action alongside cultural identity offers a more pragmatic approach.
• Universal Human Struggles: While deeply rooted in the Haitian context, the novel explores universal themes of poverty, love, loss, and the struggle for survival [our conversation history]. This broader humanistic perspective might extend beyond a strictly nationalist or nativist interpretation often associated with indigénisme.
• Influence of External Ideas: Manuel’s experiences in Cuba and his understanding of collective action through the concept of a huelga (strike) [our conversation history] introduce external influences into the narrative. His belief in learning from other struggles for liberation suggests an openness to ideas beyond purely local or “indigenous” solutions.
• Limited Focus on Taíno Heritage: While the name “Haïti” is of Taíno origin, the novel’s primary focus is on the contemporary Afro-Haitian experience and its cultural expressions, particularly Vodou. There isn’t a significant engagement with the pre-colonial Taíno past as a direct source of identity or resistance, which was a feature of some later expressions of Haitian indigénisme.
• Internal Conflicts and Social Stratification: The novel realistically portrays internal divisions and social inequalities within the Haitian community, such as the exploitation by figures like Hilarion and the lingering resentments between different groups. This nuanced depiction of social complexities contrasts with a potentially idealized vision of a unified “indigenous” community.

In conclusion, Gouverneurs de la rosée is a complex work that engages with themes central to Haitian indigénisme, particularly its valorization of peasant culture, connection to the land, and spirit of resistance. However, it also presents a more nuanced perspective by emphasizing human agency, acknowledging universal struggles, incorporating external influences, and offering a realistic portrayal of internal community dynamics, which could be seen as resisting a purely essentialist or narrowly defined indigéniste thought. The novel champions the strength and resilience of the Haitian people and their culture while also advocating for proactive human effort in overcoming adversity.

Question 13

Décrire les lwa suivants : Legba, Ogoun, Erzulie et identifier leurs vèvès.

Answer 13

Legba:
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Legba is the master of the crossroads in Vodou tradition.
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He is the divinity of communication and understanding.
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Legba opens the door of communication between mortal humans and divinity. He is the gatekeeper between the spirit world and the human world [our conversation history]. To interact with other loa, one must first go through Legba [our conversation history].
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In Gouverneurs de la rosée, Délira believes that Papa Legba guided Manuel’s return in a spiritual way.
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During the Vodou ceremony in Gouverneurs de la rosée, the houngan and the community invoke Papa Legba to “open the barrier” [our conversation history]. He is also referred to as the “old god of Guinea,” linking Haitian spirituality to its African origins [our conversation history].
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Ogoun:
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Ogoun is another significant loa in Haitian Vodou [our conversation history].
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During the Vodou ceremony in Gouverneurs de la rosée, Papa Ogoun arrives unexpectedly and claims his own tribute, causing a disruption.
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Our conversation history mentions that during a Vodou ceremony in Gouverneurs de la rosée, when Duperval Jean-Louis is possessed by Ogoun, the loa engages in a direct exchange with Manuel, carrying a sense of caution or reprimand, though not an explicit warning.
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Erzulie:
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Erzulie is the goddess of love.
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She is also associated with luxury, seduction, women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and sex.
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Interestingly, while Haiti does not generally accept LGBTQ+ individuals, Vodou embraces them, which aligns with Erzulie’s domain.

Question 14

Décrire le rôle de la possession dans une cérémonie vaudoue.

Answer 14

• Manifestation of the Loa: During a Vodou ceremony, individuals can become possessed by a loa, meaning the spirit “mounts” or enters their body. This possession allows the loa to be present and active within the ceremony.
• Direct Communication: Possession serves as a direct channel of communication between the loa and the human participants. The loa can speak, act, and offer guidance or blessings through the body of the possessed individual.
• Physical and Emotional Manifestations: The process of being possessed can involve significant physical and emotional changes in the individual. As seen with Mérillia and Clairemise in Gouverneurs de la rosée, they “chancelèrent, en frissonnant, le visage ravagé. Elles dansaient maintenant, en se débattant de l’épaule, dans l’étreinte forcenée des loa qui les possédaient en chair et en esprit”. Similarly, when Duperval Jean-Louis was possessed by Ogoun, his face convulsed, and he roared in a thunderous voice, proclaiming himself as the loa.
• Ritual Significance: Possession often signifies that a loa has accepted offerings or is actively participating in the ritual. For instance, the frenzied dance of the hounsi (Vodou initiates) around the sacrificed animal can be part of the manifestation of possession.
• Guidance and Prophecy: The loa that possess individuals during a ceremony may offer messages, warnings, or blessings to the community. While our conversation history noted that Ogoun’s exchange with Manuel in Gouverneurs de la rosée did not include an explicit warning, the interaction itself through possession is significant [our conversation history].
• Preparation for Possession: Ritual elements and actions within the ceremony can facilitate possession. For example, the houngan (Vodou priest) may perform specific gestures or incantations to invoke the loa. In Gouverneurs de la rosée, the waving of the rooster over the “sacrifiants” preceded the possession of Mérillia and Clairemise.
• Recognition of Possession: There are often signs that indicate possession has occurred, such as changes in voice, behavior, and physical movements, allowing the community to recognize which loa has manifested. In the context of invoking Legba in Gouverneurs de la rosée, a “possédé” was present under a canopy of banners.

In summary, possession in a Vodou ceremony is a central event that allows the divine to directly engage with the community, providing a powerful and transformative experience for both the possessed individual and the other participants. It is a vital aspect of Vodou practice that facilitates communication, spiritual guidance, and the affirmation of the relationship between humans and the loa.

Question 15

Résumer et expliquer l’importance des mythes suivants :

le mythe de la création du drapeau haïtien

et

le mythe de Défilée la folle (Dédée Bazile) suite à l’assassinat de Dessalines.

Answer 15

1. Le Mythe de la Création du Drapeau Haïtien

Résumé du Mythe:
La version la plus célèbre de ce mythe se déroule le 18 mai 1803, lors du Congrès de l’Arcahaie, un moment clé de la Révolution haïtienne. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, alors général en chef de l’armée indigène et futur empereur, aurait pris le drapeau tricolore français (bleu-blanc-rouge). Devant les officiers assemblés, il aurait symboliquement arraché la bande blanche centrale. Ensuite, Catherine Flon, souvent présentée comme sa filleule ou une couturière dévouée à la cause, aurait cousu ensemble les deux bandes restantes, le bleu et le rouge, pour créer le premier drapeau bicolore de la future république d’Haïti.

Importance du Mythe:
Ce récit, bien que les détails historiques précis puissent être débattus (d’autres versions existent), revêt une importance capitale pour l’identité haïtienne :

Rupture avec la France: L’acte d’arracher le blanc du drapeau français est un geste symbolique extrêmement puissant. Il représente le rejet radical de la domination coloniale française, de l’esclavage et du racisme associés à la partie “blanche” de la société coloniale.
Union des Révolutionnaires: Le bleu et le rouge cousus ensemble symbolisent l’union nécessaire des populations noires (représentées par le bleu) et mulâtres (représentées par le rouge) d’Haïti. Cette alliance était cruciale pour vaincre les Français et fonder une nation indépendante. Le drapeau devient l’incarnation visuelle de cette unité indispensable.
Acte Fondateur et Souveraineté: La création du drapeau est perçue comme l’un des actes fondateurs de la nation. C’est l’affirmation d’une nouvelle identité, d’une souveraineté gagnée par les armes et d’une volonté de construire un avenir indépendant. Il est un symbole permanent de la Révolution et de la liberté acquise.
Inspiration Continue: Le mythe rappelle constamment aux Haïtiens les idéaux d’unité, de liberté et de rejet de l’oppression qui ont présidé à la naissance de leur pays.
2. Le Mythe de Défilée la folle (Dédée Bazile) et l’Assassinat de Dessalines

Résumé du Mythe:
Après l’assassinat de l’Empereur Jean-Jacques Dessalines le 17 octobre 1806 à Pont Larnage (communément appelé Pont-Rouge), son corps fut brutalement mutilé par ses assassins et laissé exposé aux outrages sur la place publique à Port-au-Prince. Alors que beaucoup, par peur ou par indifférence politique, évitaient les restes du “Père de la Patrie”, une femme du peuple, pauvre et souvent décrite comme “folle” ou simple d’esprit, connue sous le nom de Défilée (dont le nom réel serait Marie Sainte Dédée Bazile), aurait bravé le danger et le dégoût. Avec un courage immense, elle aurait rassemblé les morceaux épars du corps de Dessalines dans un sac, les aurait transportés et aurait réussi à leur faire donner une sépulture chrétienne, souvent avec l’aide d’un fossoyeur compatissant.

Importance du Mythe:
La figure de Défilée la folle est profondément ancrée dans la mémoire collective haïtienne et symbolise plusieurs valeurs essentielles :

Humanité et Compassion: Son geste représente un acte d’une humanité fondamentale face à la barbarie politique. Dans un moment de trahison et de violence extrême, elle incarne la pitié, le respect et la dignité humaine, même envers un personnage controversé et puissant après sa chute.
Loyauté et Mémoire Populaire: Défilée symbolise la fidélité indéfectible du peuple haïtien envers le fondateur de la nation, au-delà des intrigues et des divisions des élites politiques et militaires qui ont conduit à sa mort. Elle devient la gardienne de la mémoire de Dessalines lorsque celui-ci est renié par les nouveaux dirigeants.
Courage des Humbles: Le fait qu’une femme marginalisée, décrite comme “folle” (ce qui pouvait aussi signifier “possédée” par les esprits ou simplement excentrique et hors normes sociales), soit celle qui ose accomplir cet acte sacré, souligne le courage et la résilience des plus humbles face à l’adversité et à l’oubli imposé par les puissants.
Devoir Sacré: Son action est perçue comme l’accomplissement d’un devoir sacré, celui d’honorer les morts et particulièrement le “Père de la Patrie”, assurant ainsi la continuité symbolique de la nation malgré le chaos politique. Elle incarne une forme de piété populaire et de résistance morale.

Question 16

Expliquer quand, et pourquoi, la France et les États-Unis ont décidé de reconnaître l’indépendance haïtienne.

Answer 16

France:

France recognized Haiti in 1825. This recognition was not freely given but was contingent upon Haiti paying a massive indemnity to France. According to the notes on Dessalines’s 1804 proclamation, this indemnity was in exchange for recognition [our conversation history]. The size of this indemnity significantly burdened the Haitian economy. The “préambule: une dette morale” in the lecture notes from Lundi 13 janvier 2025 foreshadowed this situation, where France implied that the formerly enslaved people owed them a debt for their freedom, stating, “devenus citoyens par la volonté de la nation française… vous défendra, sans doute, les intérêts de la République contre le rois” and “la liberté vous a fait passer du néant à l’existence…”. This suggests that France viewed their role in abolishing slavery (though initially for strategic reasons, as mentioned in the revision question of Mercredi 15 janvier 2025) as something for which Haiti should compensate them.

United States:

The United States recognized Haiti much later, in 1862. The primary reason for this delay was the existence of slavery in the southern states of the U.S.. The U.S. government was unwilling to formally recognize a nation founded by a successful slave revolt, as it would have undermined the pro-slavery stance within the country. However, the context of the American Civil War (1861-1865) created a shift in this policy. Recognizing Haiti became strategically advantageous for the Union, as in exchange for recognition, the U.S. gained access rights to Haitian ports and strategic military bases that could be used against the Confederate states.

Question 17

Résumer les conséquences principales de l’occupation américaine d’Haïti (1915-1934)

Answer 17

main consequences of the American occupation of Haiti (1915-1934) include:

• Political and Economic Control: The United States occupied Haiti, justifying their intervention by the necessity to restore order and protect their economic interests. During this period, Haiti was under U.S. tutelage.
• Profound Social Impact: The occupation had a deep and significant impact on Haitian society.
• Strengthened Haitian Nationalism: The U.S. occupation served as a catalyst and significantly reinforced Haitian nationalistic sentiment. This led to a stronger sense of national identity in response to foreign intervention.
• Rise of the Indigéniste Movement: In reaction to the American occupation, the Haitian indigéniste movement emerged. This cultural and intellectual movement promoted the valorization of Haitian culture and identity, particularly its African roots and popular traditions. The reappropriation of indigenous identity became a means of cultural resistance and a way to reaffirm Haitian sovereignty in the face of foreign dominance. This movement contributed to the construction of a distinct Haitian national identity, one that was neither solely European nor African.
• Themes of Resistance in Art and Literature: Haitian plays and other forms of literature during and after the occupation often explored themes of identity, resistance to foreign oppression, and the assertion of Haitian sovereignty. Characters in these works sometimes embodied indigéniste ideals, celebrating Haitian culture and opposing foreign influence.
• Armed Resistance: The occupation spurred resistance movements, such as the “cacos” in the early years (around 1912 and during the occupation). These peasant groups from the north demanded more social justice and actively resisted the U.S. forces. However, they were ultimately suppressed by the occupying forces, and their leaders were killed.

Question 18

Décrire les caractéristiques principales de l’école indigéniste haïtienne.
Commenter les éléments « indigénistes » dans Gouverneurs de la rosée, et les éléments qui semblent plutôt résister à la pensée indigéniste dans le roman.

Answer 18

main characteristics of the Haitian indigéniste school and a commentary on Gouverneurs de la rosée in relation to it:

Main Characteristics of the Haitian Indigéniste School:

The Haitian indigéniste movement, which emerged at the beginning of the 20th century in reaction to the American occupation (1915-1934), had several key characteristics:

• Reaction to Foreign Occupation: It arose as a direct response to the U.S. occupation, fueled by a desire to assert Haitian sovereignty and cultural identity in the face of foreign dominance.
• Valorization of Haitian Culture and Identity: The movement promoted the appreciation and elevation of Haitian culture, which had been historically marginalized and denigrated.
• Emphasis on African Roots and Popular Traditions: Indigénisme specifically highlighted and celebrated the African heritage of the Haitian people, as well as their popular traditions, such as Vodou.
• Reappropriation of Indigenous Identity: It involved a reinterpretation of the indigenous (Taíno) heritage, not as a call for a return to a pre-colonial past, but as a means to construct a distinct national identity. Symbols like the name “Haïti” were embraced. This was seen as a way to forge a national unity that transcended social and racial divisions by emphasizing a shared history of suffering on Haitian soil, linking the experiences of the Taíno and enslaved Africans.
• Cultural Resistance and National Affirmation: Indigénisme served as a form of cultural resistance against the American occupation, allowing Haitians to reaffirm their sovereignty and distinctiveness.
• Contribution to National Identity Construction: The movement played a significant role in building a more inclusive Haitian national identity, one that was not solely defined by European or African influences but was uniquely Haitian.

Indigéniste Elements in Gouverneurs de la rosée:

Gouverneurs de la rosée by Jacques Roumain, written and published around the time of and after the American occupation, exhibits several elements that align with indigéniste thought:

• Centrality of the Haitian Peasantry and Rural Life: The novel focuses on the lives, struggles, and culture of the Haitian peasantry. This valorization of the rural population and their way of life is consistent with the indigéniste focus on authentic Haitian experiences and traditions, as opposed to Europeanized urban culture. The descriptions of the coumbite (collective agricultural work), for example, highlight a traditional Haitian practice.
• Importance of Vodou: Vodou is portrayed as an integral part of the community’s spiritual and social life. The detailed description of the Vodou ceremony in Chapter 4, with the invocation of lwa like Legba and Ogoun, and the phenomenon of possession, reflects the indigéniste interest in and affirmation of Haitian popular religious traditions. The novel does not present Vodou as a primitive superstition but as a powerful force that provides hope and unity to the community.
• Use of Haitian Creole: The inclusion and prominence of Haitian Creole in the dialogue is another indigéniste element. The indigéniste movement often championed Creole as a vital aspect of Haitian cultural identity, distinct from the colonizer’s language, French.
• Themes of Land and Connection to the Soil: The profound connection of the peasants to their land and their struggle against drought emphasizes a core element of national identity tied to the physical territory of Haiti, echoing the indigéniste focus on place and belonging. Manuel’s desire to revitalize the land and bring water to Fonds-Rouge can be seen as a metaphor for the renewal of the Haitian nation.
• Resistance to Oppression and Struggle for Self-Determination: While the immediate oppression in the novel is the drought and internal conflicts, the underlying theme of the community striving for a better future resonates with the broader indigéniste spirit of resistance against forces that undermine Haitian well-being and autonomy, which historically included foreign occupation.

Elements in Gouverneurs de la rosée that Might Resist Indigéniste Thought:

While Gouverneurs de la rosée aligns with indigénisme in many ways, certain elements might be seen as resisting or complexifying a strictly nativist interpretation of the movement:

• Manuel’s Experiences in Cuba: Manuel’s return to Haiti is shaped by his experiences as a migrant worker in Cuba, where he was involved in political organizing. This introduces a broader international perspective on social and economic struggles, potentially moving beyond a purely nationalistic focus.
• Interactions and Perspectives Beyond Purely “Indigenous” Themes: The novel also delves into class dynamics, interpersonal relationships, and individual motivations that are not solely defined by a focus on African or Taíno heritage. For example, the conflicts between different factions in Fonds-Rouge and the role of characters like Hilarion highlight internal social issues.
• Emphasis on Unity and Collaboration Beyond Racial Lines: While indigénisme emphasized a unified Haitian identity, Gouverneurs de la rosée’s focus on the need for unity and collaboration among all the inhabitants of Fonds-Rouge, regardless of subtle social distinctions within the community, might be seen as a broader call for national solidarity in the face of shared hardship, rather than solely a focus on a specific cultural heritage. The reconciliation efforts led by Manuel emphasize a pragmatic need for collective action.
• Absence of Explicit Engagement with Taíno Heritage: While the novel champions Haitian Creole and African-rooted traditions, there is no significant direct engagement with the Taíno aspect of the reappropriated indigenous identity that was part of the indigéniste movement, at least based on the provided excerpts. The focus is more strongly on the contemporary struggles and African cultural heritage.

In conclusion, Gouverneurs de la rosée embodies many key tenets of the Haitian indigéniste school by valorizing peasant life, Vodou traditions, and the Creole language, and by implicitly advocating for Haitian resilience and self-determination. However, its inclusion of broader social and economic themes, international perspectives, and a focus on contemporary unity beyond specific cultural claims suggests a more nuanced approach that, while aligned with the spirit of cultural affirmation, might not strictly adhere to every aspect of a purely nativist indigéniste ideology.

Question 19

Décrire plusieurs hypothèses avancées et réfutées par Geggus pour expliquer l’origine du mot « Haïti ».

Answer 19

• Link to African Decolonization: Geggus notes that Haiti was the only Caribbean colony to radically change its name upon achieving independence, an attribute linking it to African decolonization rather than American independence. While this highlights the significance of the name change, it doesn’t directly explain the origin of the word “Haïti” itself.
• Emphasis on Break with Europe: The fact that ex-slaves and the mixed-race elite adopted an Amerindian name suggests a desire to emphasize their break with Europe. However, this focuses on the reason for choosing an indigenous name rather than the etymology of “Haïti.”
• “Nouveau Kongo” Idea: Geggus mentions that “Nouveau Kongo” was an idea considered as a name for the new nation. This suggests that alternatives to “Haïti” were discussed, implying that the choice of “Haïti” was deliberate, but it doesn’t explore the origin of “Haïti.”
• African Leadership Influence: Geggus points out that few of Haiti’s most prominent leaders were African, and most people were of mixed racial descent, not solely African. This is used to argue against the idea that the name would necessarily reflect a purely African origin or sentiment.
• Amerindian Symbols as Neutral Reference: Geggus suggests that Amerindian symbols provided a neutral reference point for Haiti’s diverse population. Again, this explains the rationale behind choosing an Amerindian name but doesn’t delve into the specific origins of “Haïti.”

The source does not explicitly detail multiple hypotheses about the etymology of ‘Haïti’ that Geggus directly refutes. Instead, it focuses on the reasons why an Amerindian name was chosen and counters potential arguments for an African-derived name based on the demographics and leadership of the Haitian Revolution.

The hypothesis that Geggus ultimately accepts as the most plausible for the origin of the word “Haïti” is that it is the Taíno Arawak word for “rugged, mountainous”. Source also supports this, stating that the indigenous name for Haiti meant “terre montagneuse”.

The reasons for choosing this name, according to Geggus:

• The ex-slaves and mixed-race elite wanted to emphasize their break with Europe. Adopting an indigenous name served this purpose.
• Given the diverse origins of the population (African and European), Amerindian symbols offered a neutral reference point that could unite the new nation.
• Even with limited reliable information about the Amerindian past, Dessalines’s adoption of “Haiti” appears to show a desire to identify with this past.

The individuals primarily responsible for the choice of the name “Haïti” were the leaders of the Haitian Revolution, particularly Jean-Jacques Dessalines, as indicated in source when the Declaration of Independence was announced and Haiti became the first country born of a slave revolt. Geggus’s analysis in source further suggests Dessalines’s key role in this selection. Source also notes that the appropriation of indigeneity, including the choice of the name Haiti, was part of a broader adoption of aboriginal symbols by the insurgents and that the Declaration of Independence, in Dessalines’s voice, refers to the new state as “peuple d’Hayti” and “Indigène”.

Question 20

Expliquer l’hypothèse que Gregus finit par accepter comme la plus vraisemblable en expliquant les raisons pour lesquelles ce nom fut choisi pour le nouveau pays après la révolution, et les personnes responsables du choix de ce nom.

Answer 20

Based on the sources and our previous conversation, the hypothesis that Geggus ultimately accepts as the most plausible for the origin of the word “Haïti” is that it is the Taíno Arawak word meaning “rugged, mountainous”. This aligns with the fact that the indigenous name for Haiti meant “terre montagneuse”.

The reasons why this name was chosen for the new country after the revolution include:

• Emphasis on a break with Europe: The ex-slaves and mixed-race elite wanted to clearly signal their separation from European colonial powers. Adopting an Amerindian name served as a powerful symbol of this rupture.
• Provision of a neutral reference point: Given that Haiti’s population was of diverse origins (African and European), Amerindian symbols offered a politically neutral ground that could potentially foster unity among the newly independent nation.
• Desire to identify with the Amerindian past: Even in the absence of extensive reliable information about the pre-colonial era, Jean-Jacques Dessalines and other leaders chose the name “Haiti,” indicating a desire to connect with the island’s indigenous history. This appropriation of indigeneity, including the name, was part of a broader adoption of aboriginal symbols by the revolutionaries.
• Assertion of belonging tied to place: The term “Indigène,” frequently used in the Declaration of Independence, functions as an assertion of belonging specifically to the territory. Choosing the indigenous name for the land reinforced this sense of place and ownership.

The person primarily responsible for the choice of the name “Haïti” was Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the first head of state of independent Haiti. The Declaration of Independence, written in Dessalines’s voice, refers to the members of the new state as “peuple d’Hayti” and “Indigène”, indicating his central role in establishing this national identity and terminology. Geggus’s analysis in source further supports the idea that Dessalines’s adoption of the name was a significant act of identification with the Amerindian past. The leaders of the Haitian Revolution, in general, were instrumental in this choice as they sought to forge a new national identity distinct from their colonizers.