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deas Flashcards

1
Q

Term/Front

A

Definition/Back

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2
Q

(Radioactive Decay) Absolute Dating

A

As an unstable atomic nucleus (core
of an atom) attempts to become
stable, it sheds an alpha particle
(protons and neutrons) and emits
radiation
• This causes original atomic nucleus to
become a new atomic element
– This process is called radioactive
decay and it will continue until the
forces in the nucleus are balanced
and stable

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3
Q

Similarities and differences between Midlatitude and Tropical cyclones

A

Both have low-pressure centers.
Both cause heavy rain and strong winds.

Midlatitude Cyclones: Form in temperate zones, need cold and warm fronts.
Tropical Cyclones: Form over warm tropical waters, powered by ocean heat.

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4
Q

Uniformitarianism

A

The Earth has gradually changed over time
– That said, the processes that have shaped the Earth have not changed
– “The present is the key to the past”

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5
Q

The Geologic Time Scale

A

Rocks can be used to piece together
Earth’s history
• The challenge is putting the pieces in
the correct order.

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6
Q

Relative Dating

A

Compare rocks or events to other rocks or events to determine
which is older/younger
– Can’t determine the exact age using this methodology

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7
Q

Absolute Dating

A

Determines the age of rocks or events in terms of actual years* (e.g.,
2.4 million years old)

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8
Q

(Stratigraphy) Relative Dating

A

Branch of geology concerned with the order and relative position of
strata (layers of rock) and their relationship to the geological time scale

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9
Q

Superposition Relative Dating

A

This is the most basic principle of relative dating
– In undeformed stratigraphic sequences, the oldest strata will lie at the
bottom of the sequence, while newer material is above

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10
Q

(Unconformity) Relative Dating

A

A break/gap in time within the rock record
– Many unconformities are due to sea-level changes, sea-level has
fluctuated hundreds of feet over time

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11
Q

(Lateral Continuity) Relative Dating

A

Layers of sediment (and the rock layers they form) extend laterally in
all directions when first deposited
– So, similar rock layers that are separated by valleys or other erosional
features can be assumed to have been originally continuous

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12
Q

Fossil Succession) Relative Dating

A

This is what was used to create The
Geologic Time Scale
– Different types of fossils appear in a
predictable sequence through
geological time (i.e., each fossil
species has a unique age range)
– Index Fossil
• Commonly found fossils with a very
narrow age range

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13
Q

(Correlation) Relative Dating

A

Matching up rock layers from
different locations to determine if
they are the same age, even if they
are geographically separated
• Do this by comparing features like rock
type, fossil content, and sedimentary
structures
– Can create a complete record in
some cases despite unconformity
at particular locations

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14
Q

Radioactive Decay (Continued)

A

– Half-life
• The time it takes for half the mass of a
radioactive isotope to decay into the
daughter product
– Can range from fractions of a second
to billions of years

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15
Q

Dating the Rock Record

A

Have to use BOTH relative and
absolute dating methods when
looking at an actual rock record

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16
Q

Folding

A

The process by which rocks bend instead of break when stress is
applied, creating wave-like structures
• Rocks are typically deposited in flat horizontal sheets, but folding will cause
these to warp into new directions

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17
Q

Rock Cycle

A

Magma cools to make igneous rocks -> metarmorphism and weathering -> sediments -> erosion -> sedimentary rock -> metamorphic rock -> melting -> magma

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18
Q

Metamorphic Rocks (Non-Foliated)

A

not foliated it does not a have any banding stripes or layers

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19
Q

Earth’s Oldest Mineral

A

4.4 Billion Years)

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20
Q

Precipitation

A

is falling water/ice

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21
Q

All precipitation originates from

A

parcels of moist air rising (cooling adiabatically)

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22
Q

steps for precipitation

A

Parcels cool until saturation is reached, thus allowing for condensation – Clouds form from condensed moisture – Over time accumulated moisture can fall (precipitation)…

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23
Q

For precipitation we need two things: – 1. – 2.

A

Moisture in the air

A mechanism to cool the air – This is necessary to cause condensation, such as rising air, which cools and allows water vapor to condense into droplets, eventually leading to precipitation.

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24
Q

Air Mass Thunderstorms form when the following three conditions are met:

A

Sufficient Moisture – There must be enough moisture in the atmosphere to form clouds and precipitation.

Atmospheric Instability – The air must be unstable, meaning that warm air at the surface can rise easily through cooler air above, allowing convection to occur.

A Lifting Mechanism – There needs to be a trigger, such as surface heating, that forces the warm air to rise and form the thunderstorm.

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25
Q

Frontal Uplift Cold Front

A

If a cold air mass (dense) approaches a warmer air mass (less dense), the cold air will “bulldoze” the warmer air vertically

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26
Q

Frontal Uplift – Warm Front

A

If a warm air mass (less dense) approaches a colder air mass (more dense), the warm air mass will ride up over the cooler air

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27
Q

Orographic Lifting

A

Air rises over mountains, cools, and causes rain on the windward side; the leeward side stays dry.

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28
Q

Convectional Uplift

A

Warm air rises, cools, and condenses, often causing thunderstorms and heavy rain.

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29
Q

Severe Thunderstorms Defined as severe when (at least 1) of the following occur:

A

Hail
Tornado
Winds reach 58 mph or higher

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30
Q

Severe thunderstorms form when three conditions are met:

A

Sufficient Moisture
Atmospheric Instability – Warm air can rise rapidly through cooler air above
Lifting Mechanism – A trigger, like a front or intense surface heating, forces the air to rise.

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31
Q

Lightning

A

is electric discharge from thunderstorm based on charge differences in atmosphere during a thunderstorm (not fully understood)

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32
Q

Thunder

A

produced by rapid expansion and compression of air by lightning bolt

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33
Q

Hail

A

Precipitation phenomena – Ice crystals pass through subfreezing and above-freezing layers collecting water

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34
Q

Tornado

A

– Small vortex of air – Associated with very low pressure – Descends down from the wall cloud at the base of the thunderstorm – Winds can range from 110 mph – 200 mph+

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35
Q

Dissipating stage (E)

A

– Once the storm has elevated all warm air

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36
Q

Midlatitude Cyclones

A

Surface large scale low pressure systems –
Central pressure near 990 to 1000 mb •
Jet streams usually responsible for formation and movement* •
Exists between 35-70° latitude •
Converging counterclockwise circulation (Northern Hemisphere) –
Rising motion • Circulation creates fronts

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37
Q

Jet Streams

A

Fast flowing upper air (neartropopause) currents – Polar jet stream • Found between large boundaries of warm and cold air in the midlatitudes

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38
Q

Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone:

A

Early stage (A and B) – Open wave stage (C) – Occlusion stage (D) – Dissipating stage (E)

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39
Q

Early stage (A and B)

A

Stationary front is prominent •
Separating cold air mass and warm air mass –
Beginning of the formation of the surface low due to divergence aloft –
Winds begin to circulate around the center of low pressure

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40
Q

Open wave stage (C)

A

During this stage the system has well-defined fronts •
Cold Front • Warm Front

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41
Q

Occlusion stage (D)

A

Eventually, the surging cold front will catch up with the warm front
– Warm air begins lifting from the surface as the cold “dense” air forces it upwards
– Occluded front created
– Cyclone starts to weaken or “dissipate”

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42
Q

Tropical Cyclone

A

Low surface pressure system •
Thrive off warm waters (Tropics)
– “Warm core system” •
Typically form between 5-25° latitude
Converging counterclockwise circulation (Northern Hemisphere)

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43
Q

Eye –

A

located in the center of a hurricane – Generally calm/clear condition

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44
Q

Eyewall

A

towering ring of cumulonimbus clouds that surrounds the eye
Rapid rising motion from just outside of the eye fuels these storms – Strongest winds, heaviest rainfall

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45
Q

• Rainband

A

convective bands of heavy precipitation that spirals inward toward the center of the storm

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46
Q

what is banding

A

banding is a type of foliation with alternating thick layers with different mineral compositions

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47
Q

Crystal form

A

unique shape of crystals

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48
Q

Define Rocks

A

Made up of a combination of minerals
• Three main types:
– Igneous
– Sedimentary
– Metamorphic

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49
Q

Metamorphic Rocks (Foliated)

A

Foliated (striped, distinct sheets of minerals)
• Banding

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50
Q

High-grade metamorphic rocks

A

rocks have been chemically altered which Results in large changes in chemical composition

51
Q

Mohs hardness Scale

A

Talc - softest
Diamond - Hardest

52
Q

Low-grade metamorphic rocks

A

rocks have been physically altered so then the minerals rearranged into a more compact form

53
Q

How many directions of cleavage if there are 2 parallel sides?

A

1 direction of cleavage

54
Q

Metamorphic Rocks

A

Rocks Form when other rock types are subject to metamorphism agents (heat, pressure, and/or exposure to fluids)
– Changes rocks without melting them

55
Q

Define Fracture

A

Has no cleavage

56
Q

What’s more important mineral color or streak color?

A

Streak color

57
Q

Sedimentary Rocks (Chemical)

A

– Can form in many different ways…
– The most common process is called precipitation
• Form solid crystals from a solution of water and dissolved minerals (not cementing pieces together)

58
Q

Specific Gravity

A

mineral’s density

59
Q

Sedimentary Rocks (Clastic)

A

– Form through lithification (75 percent of sedimentary rocks)
• Rock deposits become buried
• Older layers at the bottom experience “compaction”, water squeezed out
• Minerals dissolved in the water are left in the “pore spaces” between the sediment
• “Cementation” occurs as the minerals fuse the sediment pieces together

60
Q

What is Sedimentary Rocks( 2 types of weathering and def)

A

•Rocks Formed from pieces of pre-existing rocks or pieces of onceliving organisms
– These are the types of rocks that make up fossils!
– Mechanical weathering (breaking down rocks through physical stress)
– Chemical weathering (breaking down rocks from some type of chemical reaction)

61
Q

Hardness

A

hardness of mineral (talc vs. Diamond)

62
Q

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

A

• Form when lava cools rapidly above the Earth’s surface
• Small crystals (sometimes none)
– Aphanitic texture
• Example: Obsidian

63
Q

Fracture/Cleavage

A

How a mineral breaks (planes of
weakness)

64
Q

Streak

A

color of mineral in powdered form

65
Q

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

A

• Form when magma cools slowly below the Earth’s surface
• Large, well-formed crystals
– Phaneritic texture
• Example: Granite

66
Q

Luster

A

how light is reflected from a mineral (i.e., general
aesthetic)

67
Q

Mafic Igneous Rocks

A

• Rich in magnesium and iron
• Often darker in color
• High density rocks

68
Q

Felsic Igneous Rocks

A

• Rich in silica and lighter elements like sodium and potassium
• Often lighter in color
• Low density

69
Q

Color

A

color of mineral (least useful property)

70
Q

Crystal form

A

unique shape of crystals

71
Q

What are Igneous Rocks

A

Rocks formed directly from molten material (magma or lava) or volcanic debris
– Form through crystallization
• When molten material/debris cools and solidifies

72
Q

By def. all minerals must be

A

be found in nature
be made up of totally inorganic substances
have the same chemical composition wherever found
contain atom arranged in random pattern and forming solid units called crystals

73
Q

Deep Mantle Plumes (what is a hotspot)

A

“Hot Spot” – A place where a deep mantle plume (relative hot spot in mantle) has burned through the crust
• Results in geologic activity (e.g., volcanoes and earthquakes*) despite not being near a plate boundary

74
Q

Minerals

A

-A naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical
structure
-Building blocks of rocks

75
Q

Plate Tectonics (Transform boundaries)

A

– Two plates slip past each other laterally
– Neither creates nor destroys crust
– Commonly produce shallow earthquakes

76
Q

Elements

A

Building blocks of minerals
• Most of the Earth’s crust is made up of just eight elements
(Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium, Oxygen, Silicon)

77
Q

Plate Tectonics (Convergent Boundaries ->Continental-Continental)

A

• No subduction since both plates are highly buoyant
• Builds huge mountain ran
• Volcanoes are rare
• Shallow earthquakes are relatively commonages (e.g., Himalaya Mountains)

78
Q

Global Warming Disagreements

A

– Whether the warming since 1950
has been dominated by human
causes
– How much the planet will warm in
the 21st century
– Whether we can afford to
dramatically reduce carbon dioxide
emissions AND whether a reduction
will “improve” the climate
– How big of a danger the issue is

79
Q

Plate Tectonics (Convergent Boundaries ->Oceanic-Oceanic)

A

• Subduction results in undersea trench formation (e.g., Mariana Trench)
• “Volcanic island arc” can be created near the boundary
• Deep and shallow earthquakes tend to form along boundary

80
Q

Plate Tectonics (Convergent Boundaries ->Oceanic-Oceanic)

A

• Subduction results in undersea trench formation (e.g., Mariana Trench)
• “Volcanic island arc” can be created near the boundary
• Deep and shallow earthquakes tend to form along boundary

81
Q

Global Warming Agreements

A

– Surface temperatures have
increased since 1880
– Humans are adding carbon dioxide
(and other greenhouse gases) to
the atmosphere
– Greenhouse gases have a warming
effect on the plane

82
Q

3) Axial Procession

A

– Wobbling on axis
– 25,000 years

83
Q

Plate Tectonics (Convergent Boundaries ->Oceanic-continental)

A

• Oceanic plate sinks since more dense; subduction
• Forms oceanic trench where subduction occurs
• Volcano formation near boundary (“Continental volcanic arc”)
– This can create mountain ranges (e.g., Cascades and Andes)
• Earthquakes occur along margin • Forms metamorphic rocks – blueschist

84
Q

2) Orbital Eccentricity

A

– Higher eccentricity = more elliptical
– Lower eccentricity = more circular
– 100,000 years

85
Q

Plate Tectonics (Convergent Boundaries)

A

– Collisions between plates
– “Destructive”
– Three primary collisions:
• 1) Oceanic-continental
• 2) Oceanic-oceanic
• 3) Continental-continental

86
Q

1) Axial Tilt

A

– Ranges from 22° – 24.5°
– 40,000 years

87
Q

Plate Tectonics (Divergent Boundaries)

A

– Plates move away from each other
– “Constructive”
– Shallow earthquakes and volcanic activity
– Example: Mid-Oceanic ridge

88
Q

Plate Boundaries

A

-plate boundaries is border between 2 plates
– Three types:
• Divergent
• Convergent
• Transform

89
Q

3 Milankovitch Cycles

A

1) Axial Tilt
2) Orbital Eccentricity
3) Axial Procession

90
Q

Plate Tectonics

A

-plate tectonic is Theory behind how and why continents move
• “how” - lithospheric plates float on the asthenosphere
• “why” - CONVECTION!

91
Q

Holocene

A

– 10,000 years ago to present
– Interglacial period

92
Q

What is continental drift (give an example and who made it)

A

– Continents move (“drift”) on Earth’s surface
– Alfred Wegener Pangaea (225 million years ago)

93
Q

Pleistocene

A

– 1.7 million years ago to 10,000 years ago
– Glacial and Interglacial periods

94
Q

The Ocean Basins (System of ridges)

A

System of ridges surrounded by reliefs
– Often found at the center of an ocean basin (“Mid-Oceanic Ridge”)
– Active submarine volcanism and major movements of Earth’s crust are found here
• Associated with a divergent plate boundary (more on this later)

95
Q

Proxy Data

A

• Historical accounts
• Ice cores
• Sediment cores
• Pollen spores
• Fossils
• Tree rings

96
Q

The Ocean Basins (Abyssal Zone)

A

– Abyssal plains is large expansions of low relief ocean floor
• Form the floors of the deepest areas of each ocean
– Depths greater than 5,000 m (16,500 ft)
• Contains numerous hills, valleys, and seamounts

97
Q

Direct observations

A

• Climate information from instrumentation
• Have this dating back to 1850s

98
Q

2 main sources of climate data

A

Direct Observation and Proxy Data

99
Q

The Ocean Basins (Continental Rise Margin)

A

– Transitional zone of gently sloping seafloor
– Begins at the foot of the continental slope and continues
• Extends to depths of approximately 4,000 m - 5,000 m (13,000 ft - 16,500 ft)
– Made of material carried down from shelf and slope
– Leads into the Abyssal zone

100
Q

What is the Earths age?

A

4.6 billion years
(Little evidence of early climate (billions of years ago)
– More information about last 2 million years)

101
Q

The Ocean Basins (Continental Slope Margin)

A

– Begins where the continental shelf ends and plunges (“slopes”) steeply downward
• Extends to depths of approximately 3,200 m (10,500 feet)

102
Q

Climate Classification of Salisbury, MD(A,B,C,D,E,H)

A

mid-Atlantic region of the United States, which generally falls under the humid subtropical climate classification in the Köppen system. Salisbury’s climate can be classified as Cfa:
C: Temperate (Mild Mid-Latitude).
f: Significant precipitation in all seasons (no dry season).
a: Hot summers.

103
Q

The Ocean Basins (Continental Shelf Margin)

A

– Gently sloping, relatively shallow, submerged plain at the edge of the continent
• No deeper than 180 m (600 ft)
– Can be relatively large

104
Q

Oceanic Crust

A

• Thickness is approximately 5 km (3 miles)
• Mafic “igneous” rocks
– More dense
– Tend to be darker

105
Q

H: Highland Climates

A

Climates affected by altitude, with temperatures generally colder as elevation increases.
Precipitation and temperature vary greatly with altitude.
Example: The Andes, Rocky Mountains.

106
Q

Continental Crust

A

• Thickness is approximately 40 km (25 miles)
– Behaves almost like a root system to continent above
• Felsic “igneous” rocks
– Less dense

107
Q

E: Polar Climates

A

Extremely cold with temperatures often below freezing year-round.
Includes tundra (ET) and ice cap (EF) climates.
Example: Antarctica (EF), northern Alaska (ET).

108
Q

D: Continental Climates (Severe Mid-Latitude)

A

Large seasonal temperature differences, with cold winters.
Usually found in the interior of continents.
Example: Moscow, Russia.

109
Q

Rheology Model (Mantle/Crust)

A

• Mohorovicic “Moho” Discontinuity
– Discovered in 1909
– Andrija Mohorovicic
• Croatian scientist
– Distinctive contact plane between the Crust and Mantle
• Iron-rich minerals (Mantle) vs. Silicarich minerals (Crust)

110
Q

C: Temperate Climates (Mild Mid-Latitude)

A

Moderate temperatures, with distinct seasonal variations.
Winters are mild; summers may be warm.
Subdivisions include humid subtropical (Cfa) and Mediterranean (Csa).
Example: Southeastern United States (Cfa), Mediterranean coast (Csa).

111
Q

Rheology Model (Crust)

A

– Lies directly above the Mantle
– Rocks with silica
-rich minerals are dominant here
• Exact composition of the crust is highly variable from place to place (more on this later)
– Thickness varies
• 5 km to 40 (or more) km (3 miles to 25 miles)
- Crust and solid part of upper mantle make up the “Lithosphere”

112
Q

Rheology Model ( Upper Mantle)

A

– Same materials as lower mantle, but density is less
– Extends from the base of the crust to a depth of just 660 km (410 miles)
– Interacts with the Crust
– Two parts of Upper Mantle:
• 1) Lower part (Asthenosphere):
– Consists of molten rock
• 2) Upper part:
– As you approach the surface, It becomes more rigid

113
Q

B: Dry Climates

A

Characterized by very low precipitation.
Includes deserts (BWh) and semi-arid regions (BS).
Example: Sahara Desert (BWh), which stands for a hot desert climate.

114
Q

Rheology Model -> (Lower Mantle)

A

– Composed of rocks with iron
-rich minerals
– More solid than most parts of the Upper Mantle
– Material can slowly move • Movement similar to a glacier
– 2,240 km (1,392 miles) thick

115
Q

A: Tropical Climates

A

Warm temperatures year-round.
Significant rainfall, especially during the wet season.
Examples: Amazon Rainforest, Southeast Asia.

116
Q

Rheology Model -> (Outer Core)

A

– Consists of the same materials as the inner core
– Pressures are less, so a liquid (molten) state prevails
– Approximately 5,000 Celsius (9,032 F)
– 2,270 km (1,410 miles) thick

117
Q

Köppen Climate Types

A

The main categories are designated by capital letters (A, B, C, D, E, and H):
A: Tropical Climates
B: Dry Climates
C: Temperate Climates (Mild Mid-Latitude)
D: Continental Climates (Severe Mid-Latitude)
E: Polar Climates
H: Highland Climates

118
Q

Climatology

A

The scientific study of climate, which encompasses the long-term patterns and averages of weather conditions over extensive periods, generally over 30 years or more.

119
Q

Rheology Model -> (Inner Core)

A

-Iron and nickel exist here in a dense solid state due to high pressures
-Approximately 6,000 Celsius (10,832 F)
-Radius of only 1,216 km (755 miles)

120
Q

Earth’s internal layers -> Rheology

A

based on how different materials flow (e.g., behavior of material)

121
Q

Meteorology

A

The scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on short-term weather patterns and conditions, typically on a scale of hours to weeks.

122
Q

Earth’s internal layers -> Chemical

A

– based on rock type

123
Q

What is Geology?

A

The science that deals with the Earth’s physical structure and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it

124
Q

Created on OmniSets

A

https://www.omnisets.com/sets/sharelink/9d026283-69d8-40cd-a4d9-162bdea173db/

geo (2 decks)

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