D3 Wines of the world Flashcards
France: In general what is the climate?
The climate varies due to the size of the country. Latitude is 42-49, conditions vary markedly between
France: In general, how is the vineyard managed?
With exception of bush vines in the south, virtually all france vineyards are planted at high density with vines trained on trellises. Vines are often trained with cane-replacement pruned Guyot system with vertical shoot positioning.
10% of all vineyard area is certified organic.
France: What is the top 10 of grape varieties grown?
- Merlot
- Ugni Blanc
- Grenache Noir
- Syrah
- Chardonnay
- Cabernet Sauvignon
- Cabernet Franc
- Carignan
- Pinot Noir
- Sauvignon Blanc
France: In general, what can you tell about winemaking?
Chaptalisation was founded in France but lesser used due to warmer climate and better canopy management. Use of maturation in barrels was a long standard in French winemaking. The industry is supported by a large scientific sector devoted to viticulture and vinification.
France: In general, how is wine law and regulation organised?
1935: Institut National des Appellations d’Origine now: Institut National de l’Origine et de la Qualité. It oversees creation of AOC system and also IGP wines.
The AOCs embed a commitment to geographically defined appellations that include rule about methods of productions based on the idea of terroir.
France: In general, what can you tell about wine business?
Average size of vineyard holdings is higher than Spain or Italy (10,5ha). Co-operatives are very important for smaller growers (40%).
Wine consumption per capita is half of the level a century ago. 75% of volume sales are through small and medium-sized local companies or private label, sector is highly fragmented. Largest company is Castel Frères, Carrefour France and ITM enterprices. Export volumes is less than Spain or Italy by volume but still the world leader by value. Also imports, mostly cheaper wines.
Bordeaux: What can you tell in general about Bordeaux?
It is traversed by the river Garonne and the river Dordogne, which merge to form the Gironde. In between the rivers it is known as Entre-Deux-Mers. Left bank and right bank.
90% of plantings are black grapes. Production of AOC wine is 85% red, 10% dry white, 1% sweet white and 4% rose.
Bordeaux: What are the top varieties planted?
- Merlot
- Cabernet Sauvignon
- Cabernet Franc
- Other reds
- Sémillon
- Sauvignon Blanc
- Muscadelle
Bordeaux: What are key developments in the history?
In 17th and 18th century the marshy peninsula of Médoc was drained by Dutch residents in the city of Bordeaux and planted. By mid-18th, Lafite and Margaux were already widely appreciated across Europe and America. Important centre for wine export. Merchants came and brokers they distributed the wines of Bordeaux. This system of distribution is still in place.
1855, Exposition Universelle de Paris, classification of wines based on price, estates of the Médoc plus Haut Brion in Graves were classed into 5 bands, those of Sauternes into three.
Area under vine: 111000 ha, most is for Bordeaux or Bordeaux Supérieur appellations (70%)
Bordeaux: What is the climate of Bordeaux?
The region has a moderate maritime climate. The cool Atlantic Ocean is a cooling influence. In best years, gentle heat, sufficient rainfall and dry and warm autumn allow for steady and complete ripening. Left Bank is partially protected from storms by extensive pine forest (Landes), areas that are less protected by this forest are cooler.
Rainfall is variable, 950mm. Climate change in extreme temperatures does not have the greatest effect on the grapes of Bordeaux other than lack of acidity and thus balance. The rivers can have a moderating influence on frost effects.
Extremes in weather can lead to vintage variation (hail, frost, rain, temperature)
Bordeaux: What are the soils of the Left Bank?
Médoc to the north of the city and Graves to its south, benefits from deposits of gravel and stony soils (from Pyrenees and Massif Central). Gravel is mixed with clay and sand. Croupes are gravel mounds, that’s where the top estates are planted on.
Gravel drains well, so roots dry out soon and grapes can ripen. In extreme heat, there where the soil is shallow (Pomerol), vines can suffer from drought stress.
Gravel also has heat retention, this facilitates slow ripening.
Bordeaux: What are the soils of the Right Bank?
There is more clay in the soil with significant patches of gravel. Merlot is grown here a lot, this is ideally suited to such soils. The best wines come grom grapes grown on the limestone plateau or the gravel section that borders Pomerol
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Merlot?
Early budding (spring frost), mid ripening (early harvest). Susceptible to coulure, drought and botrytis. In Bordeaux Merlot can ripen in cooler years. It is the dominant variety on the Right Bank and cooler northern Médoc. It reaches higher sugar levels (higher potential alcohol). It contributes medium to pronounced intensity fruit (strawberry and red plum with herbaceous flavours in cooler years; blackberry, black plum in hot years), medium tannins and medium to high alcohol to the blend.
Bordeaux: What are characteristics of Cabernet Sauvignon?
Late budding (less spring frost). Small berry with thick skin and high tannin. Prone to fungal diseases, especially powdery mildew and Eutypa and Esca. Late ripening (needs warmer soils), making it vulnerable to autumn rains.
It contributes pronounced violet, blackcurrant, black cherry and menthol or herbaceous flavours, medium alcohol and high acidity and tannins to the blend.
In cooler years growers could struggle to ripen resulting in wines with high acidity, unripe tannins and little fruit.
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Cabernet Franc?
In Bordeaux as a variety, it contributes red fruit, high acidity and medium tannins to the blend.
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Malbec?
In Bordeaux, after the hard frosts of 1956, Malbec was mainly replaced with Merlot, which is easier to grow in Bordeaux.
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Petit Verdot?
This variety buds early and ripens late, making it vulnerable to spring frosts, struggle to ripen in cooler years and to rain around harvest. It does best in the warmer parts of the Médoc.
It contributes powerful, deeply coloured wines with spice notes and high tannins. Often less than 5% in blend, nowadays increasingly valued because of warmer climate
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Sémillon?
Mid-ripening variety, susceptible to botrytis and noble rot. It has low intensity apple, lemon (and if under ripe: grassy) flavours, a medium body, medium alcohol and medium to medium+ acidity. It contributes low to medium intensity aromas, weight and body, and medium acidity. It softens Sauvignon Blanc. It has strong affinity with vanilla and sweet spice from new oak.
In sweet wines it contributes pronounced honey and dried fruit (lemon, peach) and a waxy texture. Sauternes has high proportion of Sémillon in the blend. It can age well, developing toast and honeyed notes with age.
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Sauvignon Blanc?
In Bordeaux, it contributes its grassy and gooseberry fruit and high acidity to dry white blends and to sweet botrytis-affected wines. Also single variety dry SB white wines are made.
Bordeaux: What are the characteristics of Muscadelle?
It needs to be planted on a well-exposed site, as it is very prone to botrytis bunch rot. The vast majority is used in sweet white wines where it contributes flowery and grapey notes.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about vineyard management in plantings?
Top quality is very densely planted, this adds costsas more plants and more trellising have to be bought, specialist tractors bought and more time is needed for vine training, ploughing and spraying. However, this makes the best use of expensive vineyard land.
Often, vines are head-trained, replacement cane-pruned. Left bank: double Guyot, Right bank: single Guyot. Single is cordon-trained, spur-pruned: it reduces yields naturally and gives better aeration.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about vineyard management in disease pressure?
The moderate, damp climate leads careful canopy management to reduce the incidence of downy mildew, powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot. Important technique is leaf removal to improve aeration and increase exposure to uv-light.
Soft pruning is used to deal with Eutypa dieback and Esca. And insecticides can contain Flavescence dorée, but the use of insecticides is not favoured because of impact on biodiversity.
Bunch-thin was used to correct vines carrying a high yield and to improve concentration, now less used because vines become unbalanced.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about vineyard management in harvesting?
Yield have decreased in the past two decades. This led to exaggeratedly low yields which led to super-concentrated wines that could be jammy or fatiguing.
In harvest nowadays, teams are hired for a longer period with calculated idle days because of rain. This way winegrower can ensure ripe grapes. Because of problems of finding workers, many grapes are picked by machines, especially the grapes intended for high volume inexpensive wines.
Bordeaux: What can you tell in general about winemaking?
Levels of sorting vary according to the value of the wine and the quality of the vintage. Often, especially in high quality wines, plot to plot winemaking is exercised. This way there can be separate lots of wine made which can be blended later. This adds to costs.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about red winemaking, specifically fermentation?
Fermentation is in closed vats with pump-overs. Cultured yeasts are used. Vessels are wood, stainless steel and concrete: all with temperature control.
Mid-range fermentation temperature and a short period on the skins after fermentation (5-7 days) is used for wines intended for early drinking.
Mid-range to warm temperatures and a total of 14-30 days on the skins is used for wines intended to be aged for many years in bottle. Maceration times are reduced in poor vintages if the fruit is not fully ripe.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about red winemaking, specifically after fermentation?
After fermentation, pressing is carried out. Either in pneumatic presses or in modern vertical or hydraulic presses (gentle extraction).
Free-run and press wine are separately transferred into 225 litre barrels (barriques).
MLF takes place in either tanks or barrels, often before spring tasting (en primeur). To ensure that cellars can be heated.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about red winemaking, specifically ageing?
Simpler wines are aged in stainless steel, concrete vats or large vats for 4-6 months and oak chips may be added. High quality wines are matured in French oak barriques. Most common is a mix of new, one-year old and two-year old barriques, though some very prestigious properties will use up to 100% new oak.
Barrels are chosen with a range of cooperages for greater perceived complexity with m-m+ level of toast.
Maturing is 18-24 months, depending on quality of the wine. Wines are racked every 3 months or micro-oxygenated to prevent reduction and help soften tannins.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about red winemaking, specifically blending?
Two approaches to blending:
- blend over the winter, outcome is not just a near-final blend but a deselection of wines that will end up in the estate’s second or third label. This is used if the wines are tasted in spring for en primeur.
- blend a few months before bottling. The blending team can assess the evolution of each variety and each lot before making the final decisions.
Most properties work with a winemaking consultant to assist in the blending process.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about rosé winemaking?
There are two styles of rosé made
- deeper coloured, traditional Clairet. Made by short maceration and bleeding off.
- lighter coloured rosé, with main varieties Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. Made by direct pressing of red grapes
Bordeaux: What can you tell about (dry) white winemaking?
Grapes are either pressed directly on arrival (maximum freshness) or left on skins for up to 24 hours (more aromatic and phenolic complexity).
Wines intended for early drinking are fermented at cool temperatures in stainless steel. Mid priced wines are often left on the fine lees for 6-12 months for more weight and complexity.
High quality wines are fermented and aged in barriques with varying proportion of new oak. MLF is often blocked to retain acidity. It used to be common to stir fine lees (batonnage).
Bordeaux: What can you tell about sweet wine in grape growing?
Yields are kept low to ensure very high sugar levels. This is achieved by pruning to a low number of buds. Low yields and the reduction in juice created by botrytis mean that many estates do not achieve the low 25 hL/ha max allowed in Sauternes and Barsac. Below 10 hL/ha is very common, this increases costs!
Harvesters must be well-trained to identifying different types of rot. Harvest can last from september to november. Botrytis in wine depends on if conditions are correct, position of estate, willingness to risk losing crop by waiting in harvest
Bordeaux: What can you tell about sweet wine in winemaking?
Once picked, grapes are handled as for a dry white wine. Top-quality wines are typically barrel-fermented with a high proportion of new oak and barrel-aged (18-36 months) to encourage gentle oxidation that will add complexity.
Amount of new oak varies between 30-50% with up to 100% for Ch. d’Yquem.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about the generic appellations Bordeaux AOC and Bordeaux Supérieur AOC?
Yields are white: 65, rosé: 62 and Bordeaux AOC red: 67, Bordeaux Supérieur AOC red: 59. These appellations account for 50% of all wine produced in Bordeaux.
Red wine: Merlot: medium intensity red fruit, high acidity, medium+ tannins, medium body and medium alcohol.
White wine: Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon: medium intensity gooseberry and lemon fruit. medium body, high acidity and medium alcohol.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about the left bank appellations?
Médoc AOC and Haut-Médoc AOC. Only red: 55.
In Médoc (northern) even proportions of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. In Haut-Médoc more CS.
In Haut-Médoc there are commune appellations: Saint-Estèphe, Pauillac, Saint-Julien, Margaux. Here the yield is 57. Wines have pronounced intensity blackcurrant, green bell pepper. red plum fruit, vanilla, cedar, medium-high alcohol, high tannins, medium+ body.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Saint-Estèphe AOC?
LB. Most northerly of Haut-Médoc and has more Merlot (40%). Soils have some clay to ripen Merlot. CS is 50% of plantings and grown on gravel banks close to the estuary. Due to cooler climate, wines are more rustic that need many years in bottle to soften the tannins. Wines from the warmer gravel soils or with more Merlot can be drunk younger. In the AOC there are no first growths, but it does have second growth and large number of cru bourgeois.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Pauillac AOC?
LB. High proportion of CS planted (62%) often on gravel banks. Many top estates have more (70-80%) CS in the blend. This gives wines that have high concentration and great longevity. The wines are the most structured on the left bank, with high tannins an high acidity.
Pauillac has 3 first growths, highest proportion of production of cru classé.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Saint-Julien AOC?
LB. High proportion of CS planted and high proportion of production of cru classé. Very homogenous gravel soils. Wines are stylistically regarded as mid-way point between powerful Pauillac and finesse Margaux. No first growths, 5 second growths
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Margaux AOC?
LB. High proportion of production of cru classé and 1 first growth. Slightly more Merlot. Soils are stony, gravelly and grapes ripe a few days earlier.
Clay seams mean that some soils can require supplementary drainage.
Wines are perfumed with silky tannins.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Listrac-Médoc AOC and Moulis AOC?
LB. These appellations are further south and benefit less from moderating influence of estuary and have less gravel in the soils. AOC requirements are the same as for the other appellations in the Haut-Médoc. Wines can be released for consumption slightly earlier.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Graves AOC?
LB. Large appellation for white an red wines. Max yields are white: 58 and red: 55. 85% of wine is red.
Graves Supérieures AOC is restricted to late picked and/or botrytis-affected sweet wines which allows higher yields than Sauternes.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Pessac-Léognan AOC?
LB. It is a subregion within Graves AOC. Has both gravel soils and moderating effect of the Garonne. It is known for high quality, often barrel-fermented and ages white wines (80%) and high-quality red wines (20%). In includes 1 first growth from 1855 classification and all of the cru classé properties of the Graves classification. Reputation of the best white wines of Bordeaux. Max yield is 54.
White wines are blend of Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon and have pronounced aromas of gooseberry, lemon and grapefruit, with vanilla and clove oak notes, medium+ body, medium+-high acidity and medium-high alcohol.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Entre-Deux-Mers AOC?
Second largest appellation in term of hectares, producing only white wines. Maximum yield is 65, resulting in lighter flavour intensity.
Bordeaux: What can you tell in general about the right bank, red appellations?
Right bank is characterised by many small estates and the dominance of Merlot (on clay), followed by Cabernet Franc and small plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Saint-Émilion AOC and Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC?
RB. Only red wines. SE Grand Cru has lower yields (46 as opposed to 53) and longer maturation time (20 months as opposed to 6).
Merlot is dominant grape variety (60%), next CF.
SE has own classification system. The top wines have pronounced red an black plum fruit with noticeable vanilla and clove new oak character, full body, high alcohol and medium+ to high acidity and medium+ to high tannins. Because of intense fruit concentration, high acidity and tannins, the best wine can age long.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about the Saint-Émilion satellites?
RB. Four satellites that are close to SE, but further away from the river Dordogne. Same regulations as in SE AOC. The two largest satellites are Montagne Saint-Émilion AOC and Lussac-Saint-Émilion AOC
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Pomerol AOC?
RB. Small but very prestigious appellation for red wines with Merlot dominant (80%). Max yield is 49. No classification system, but many top quality estates. Because of small sizes of estates and consequent small production, top properties command some of the highest prices in the world per bottle (Petrus).
Wines typically have pronounced red and black plum fruit with noticeable vanilla and clove new oak character, full body, high alcohol, medium+ to high acidity and medium+ to high tannins.
Bordeaux: What can you tell about the Pomerol satellites?
RB. Lalande-de-Pomerol AOC is a larger satellite appellation that allows slightly higher yields than in Pomerol AOC
Bordeaux: What can you tell about the Côtes de Bordeaux AOC?
RB. It is an appellation for red and white wine, created in 2009. An number of communes can append their name before the AOC name: Blaye, Cadillac, Castillon and Francs. Red: 55, and if commune name is appended: 52
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Côtes de Bourg AOC?
RB. Dominant variety is Merlot, wines are similar in style as Médoc. Focus on Malbec with 10% of hectares planted (highest percentage in Bordeaux)
Bordeaux: What can you tell about the sweet wine appellations?
LB. Sauternes AOC and Barsac AOC. Typically botrytis-affected wines from Sémillon (80%), Sauvignon Blanc and Muscadelle. Due to meeting of cold Ciron river with warmer Garonne river, promoting morning mists that are burnt away with sunshine in the middle of the day.
Other sweet wine appellations are Sainte-Croix-du-Mont AOC, Loupiac AOC (both max yields 40), Premières Côtes de bOrdeaux AOC (max yield 45). These appellations are near Entre-Deux-Mers
Bordeaux: What can you tell about Sauternes AOC?
LB. Largest sweet wine appellation, wines from Barsac can be labelled as either Barsac AOC or Sauternes AOC.
Max yields are 25, but much lower yields are required to aid ripening before noble rot develops.
Wines have pronounced aromas of citrus peel, honey, tropical fruit (mango), with vanilla, full body, high alcohol, medium to medium+ acidity and sweet finish.
In Sauternes AOC many estates also produce dry white wines as a source of income due to lack of demand for sweet wines.
Bordeaux: What classification systems are there?
- 1855 classification
- Graves classification
- Saint-Émilion classification
- Cru Bourgeois du Médoc classification
Pomerol is the only top quality appellation that has no classification system at al. Some of the classification systems have proved controversial.
Bordeaux: Tell me about the 1855 classification?
Cru classé wines represents about a quarter of the wine produced in the Médoc. Classed growths must be bottled at the estates. Sauternes is ranked into first and second growths, with Ch. d’Yquem being awarded a special category: premier cru supérieur
60 leading properties or chateaux from the Médoc and 1 from the Graves, ranked in 5 tiers.
First growths are:
- Chateau Lafite Rothschild, Pauillac
- Chateau Latour, Pauillac
- Chateau Margaux, Margaux
- Chateau Haut Brion, Pessac (Graves)
- Chateau Mouton Rothschild, Pauillac (1973)
Bordeaux: Tell me about the Graves classification?
List based on pricing, fame and quality as judged by tasting. 16 classified chateaux for their red, white or both, alle located within Pessac-Léognan.
Bordeaux: Tell me about the Saint-Émilion classification?
Only applies to some wines within the SE Grand Cru AOC. Dates back to 1955 and is revised every 10 years. Chateaux are judged on their terroir, methods of production, reputation and commercial considerations and a blind tasting of at least 10 vintages. It includes 3 tiers: premier grand cru A, premier grand cru B and Grand cru classé.
Bordeaux: Tell me about the Crus Bourgeois du Médoc classification?
Created in 1932. Cru Bourgeois is a level below Cru Classé, but still of superior quality. Mark of quality is based on assessment of both production method and finished product. There are 3 tiers: Cru Bourgeois, Cru Bourgeois Supérieur and Cru Bourgeois Exceptionnel. Classification last for 5 years.
Bordeaux: What, in general, can you tell about wine business?
Many estates, co-operatives account for 40% grape growers. Production costs increase with classed growth, the main additional production costs are
- increased vine density
- harvest cost
- hugely higher viticultural cost
- lower yield
- rigorous grape selection
- barrel ageing (purchase and time in barrel)
Bordeaux: To which markets are bordeaux wines sold?
Even split between domestic (56%) and export (44%). Within domestic 48% is sold in the supermarket.
Export is 44% by volume and 52% by value. Export markets are Hong Kong, China, USA, UK
Bordeaux: What is La Place de Bordeaux?
Wine is sold to a merchant (négociant) who in turn sells it on to wholesalers and retailers. In addition, the relationship between the producers and merchants is handled by a broker (courtier).
Négociants earn 15%, Courtiers 2%
Many chateaus sell to multiple négociants, they buy by allocation.
The more generic Bordeaux wines struggles to increase its prices, due to lower demand in France and huge competition from wines from other countries
Bordeaux: What is En Primeur?
Wine is sold as a future, sold a year to 18 months before it is bottled. The campaign starts in April when barrel samples are provided by estates to be tasted by wine buyers and journalists. After tasting, the estates put up for sale a small amount of wine (first tranche), intended to gauge what the market is prepared to pay for the wine. Usually price goes up for each tranche.
Wines in demand will be sold on allocation where négociants will buy even in lesser vintage to keep their allocation.
Bordeaux: What are advantages and disadvantages of En Primeur?
For estates, advantages: ability to test market, early payment and return on investment. Disadvantages: potentially selling at lower price, potential for financial mismanagement or losses by négociants
For final customer, advantages: ability to secure sought-after wines at lower prices, option to keep or trade these wines. Disadvantages: wines are bought on the basis of the opinions of others on unfinished barrel samples, prices may fall due to economic conditions or following vintages
Burgundy: What are the main areas in Burgundy?
- Chablis
- Côte d’Or (Cte de Nuits/Cte de Beaune)
- Côte Chalonnaise
- Mâconnais
- Beaujolais
Burgundy: What can you tell in general about Chablis?
It has a slightly cooler climate than de Côte d’Or.
All wines are dry, most are m body, m alcohol, with zesty high acidity, green apple and lemon fruit flavours. Often no or little oak.
Chablis plantings have differed vary because of phylloxera, powdery mildew and the Paris-Lyons-Marseille railway, depopulation from WWI, frost in 1945. Nowadays about 5500 ha.
Burgundy: What can you tell about the growing environment in Chablis?
Climate is continental with cold winters and warm summers, there is uncertainty about ripening and considerable vintage variation. Annual rainfall is 670 mm, giving high threat of fungal disease and threat of rot. Region is vulnerable to spring frost and hail storms. Soil is limestone and clay with seashells (Kimmeridgian).
Burgundy: What are options to deal with spring frosts?
- Smudge pots: air pollution
- Sprinklers (aspersion): expensive capital costs
- Pruning choices (later pruning)
Burgundy: What can you tell about vineyard management in Chablis?
41B rootstock (vinifera+berlandieri) is widely used for limestone soils with high pH. 420A (riparia+berlandieri) is popular for low vigour and tolerance to high pH. Typically, double guyot replacement cane pruning. Often machine harvesting, except for grand cru vineyards because they are too steep for mechanisation
Burgundy: What can you tell about Petit Chablis in Chablis?
Typically higher, cooler vineyards. Hard limestone with less clay: Portlandian soils. Often on flat land or gentle slopes with many north-facing aspects: leads to light bodied wines with high acidity, light intensity and green apple and lemon fruit.
Burgundy: What can you tell about location and soil type in Chablis?
Kimmeridgian soil and mixed aspects. Often on flat land or gentle slopes with many north-facing aspects: leads to light bodied wines with high acidity, medium intensity and green apple and lemon fruit.
Burgundy: What can you tell about Chablis Premier cru?
40 named vineyards with south- and south-east-facing slopes of Kimmeridgian soils. Climat is a named vineyard fixed in AOC legislation, a lieu-dit is a named piece of land in the centralised land register.
Examples are Troesmes and Beauroy
Burgundy: What can you tell about Chablis Grand Cru?
Single grand cru with 7 named vineyards. Next to the Chablis village, faces southwest on the right bank of the River Serein, Kimmeridgian soil. These wines have a greater weight and concentration. Mixture of crumbly marl with good drainage and high clay content contributes to higher quality.
Grand cru vineyards benefit from shelter from winds coming from the north due to a belt of trees between it and the adjacent Petit Chablis.
Examples of Grand Cru are Les Clos and Vaudesir
Burgundy: What can you tell about winemaking in Chablis?
Chaptalisation is allowed and often used. Fermentation in stainless steel with storage in stainless steel or concrete. MLF is common to soften acidity, lees ageing is used to enhance texture.
Burgundy: What are wine law and regulations in Chablis?
Only Chardonnay. Yields are:
- petit chablis and chablis: 60
- chablis premier cru: 58
- chablis grand cru: 54
Burgundy: What can you tell about wine business in Chablis?
One third of all wine is vinified by the co-operative La Chablisienne. Like in the rest of Burgundy, traditional distinction between négociants and domaines is breaking down.
- Syndicat de Défense d l’Appellation de Chablis (1993): combating fraud and adressing environmental issues
- L’Union des Grand Crus de Chablis: voluntary association to promote quality of Grand Cru (sustainable viticulture, harvest by hand).
Important producers are Francois Raveneau and Vincent Dauvissat
2/3 is for export: UK, USA, Japan, Sweden, Canada
Burgundy: What is the climate in the main area of Burgundy?
Moderate continental. Cte d’Or has cold winters and warm summers, Mâconnais is typically slightly drier and warmer. Morvan Hills in Cte d’Or provide protection from rainfall. Rainfall is 700mm.
Individual sites have different aspect, altitude, degree of slope and soils which make potential quality differ.
Burgundy: What are weather risks?
Frost can be a challenge, specifically, spring frost.
Hail can be a problem during the growing season. Berries can be damaged and the risk of grey rot increases.
Rain can be a problem if it falls at the wrong time and conversely drought-stress has also presented a problem in some recent vintages. Irrigation is not permitted.
Burgundy: What can you tell about the topography?
The aspect and elevation of the various vineyards in Burgundy are among the most critical factors determining the style and quality of the wines. Cte d’Ore lies on a range of hills, there are many different aspects. Best sites are midslope. Top slope is often used for Aligoté or grapes for Crémant de Bourgogne.
Burgundy: What can you tell about the soils?
In general, mixtures of carious types of limestones and clay. In Cte de Nuits more limestone in the mixture. Often grown with Pinot Noir. Cte de Beaune has more clay and soils are deeper, Chardonnay is grown here.
In Cte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais the depth of soil above the bedrock varies due in part to the movement of soils down the slopes by erosion. This means that top slope the soils is too thin and at the bottom of the slope the soils are too deep and drainage is poor.
Burgundy: What can you tell about Chardonnay?
Early budding and early ripening. Susceptible to spring frost, but suitable to cool region. Relatively high yields without loss of quality. Prone to grey rot, powdery mildew, millerandage and grapevine yellows.
Wines have apple, pear, lemon and lime fruit with wet stone notes, light to medium body and high acidity. In more moderate climates the wines have ripe citrus, melon and stone fruit, medium to medium+ body with medium+ to high acidity.
Burgundy: What can you tell about Pinot Noir?
Early budding and early ripening. Susceptible to spring frost, but suitable to cool region. Yields must be limited to produce quality wines. Variety is delicate and prone to millerandage, downy and powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot, fan leaf and leaf roll viruses. In warm climates it tend to ripen too fast.
Wines typically have strawberry, raspberry and red cherry flavours with village wines and above having light, oak-derived flavours (smoke, clove), low to medium tannins (Grand Cru wines can have medium+ tannins), medium alcohol and high acidity. The wines can develop earth, game and mushroom notes with time in bottle.
Burgundy: What can you tell about vineyard management, specifically training?
Traditionally guyot system was used, sometimes Cordon training systems are used (Cordon de Royat).
In recent years Poussard-Guyot is used, as a softer cane pruning. In this manner the system maintains the same sap route from one year to the next with pruning wounds only on the upper part of the cordon. This reduces the number of pruning wounds and seeks to cut down the incidence of Esca and other trunk diseases.
Burgundy: What can you tell about vineyard management, specifically treatment for the vine?
Planting density is 8-10.000, higher density is thought to encourage root competition leading to smaller berries with more concentration.
In winter pruning the grower can make choices to reduce yield by debudding and green harvesting. Debudding can promote good balance, but the remainder can be damaged by hail or disease. Green harvesting has the advantage is prevents bud rubbing and subsequent fungal risks. However, it can lead to changes in vine development through compensation via excessive growth and resultant dilution
Burgundy: What can you tell about vineyard management, specifically treatment of pests and diseases?
Organic and biodynamic grape growing is difficult in Burgundy as many vineyards are shared.
Grape moths are controlled with pheromone capsules.. Many fungal diseases are managed by canopy management and spraying. Grapevine yellows and Esca are significant problems and carefully monitored.
Timing of harvest is critical. Early means preserved acidity, but the fruit may not be ripe. Late can lead to a softer wine style, but the weather is tricky. Many of the fruit is harvested by hand.
Burgundy: What are the allowed yields?
Regional appellations: red: 69; white:75
Village level: red: 40-45; White 45-47
Grand Crus: red 35; white: 40
Burgundy: What can you tell about white winemaking?
(De-)Acidification and chaptalisation is allowed. Max enrichment is +1,5-2%. Hand harvested grapes sorted on tables are often whole bunch pressed and clarified by sedimentation. Some producers practice hyperoxidation for a more stable wine and protect from premature oxidation. Ambient yeasts are used for terroir expression.
Fermentation is in stainless steel or concrete at 16-18C. Wines are aged in same or older barrels. More expensive wines are fermented and aged in barrel for a creamier and more rounded style to up to 20C. Aged for 8-12 months on fine lees. New oak can be used. MLF is often used.
Burgundy: What is premature oxidation?
Wines from 1996 and subsequent vintages were showing very advanced flavours and colours after a relatively short period of time in bottle: premature oxidation. Comes from multiple causes: changes in vineyard practice, different chemical composition of the grapes, warmer vintages or later picking times, use of over-clean musts, overzealous batonnage, lower levels of sulphur dioxide, quality of cork etc.
Burgundy: What can you tell about red winemaking?
Pinot Noir needs to be vinified carefully. Important aims are to maintain primary fruit and not to overwhelm delicate fruit. Grapes are well suited to whole bunch fermentation: it aids aeration of the must and can add perfume, freshness and fine tannins to the wine.
PN is low in anthocyanins, therefore cold soaking is common.
Ambient yeast in open-top vessels to aid remontage and pigeage. It is important to break the cap to avoid reduction and the production of acetic acid, to extract colour, flavour and tannins from skind and to regulate temperature (30C). Length of post-fermentation maceration depends on the ripeness of the fruit and the style of wine to be made.
Ageing 12-20 months, use of new oak is carefully practiced due to delicate character. MLF is spontaneous in spring
Burgundy: What can you tell about vineyard classification?
4 tier hierarchy (% of production)
- regional/generic appellations (52%)
- communal/village appellations (47%)
- premier cru (with village) - Not in Mâconnais
- grand cru (1%)- Only in Cte d’Or
84 appellations including 33 grand crus, 44 village appellations, 7 regional appellations. Each grand cru of the Cte d’Or is an appellation in its own rights. The region’s 640 premier crus are additional geographical denominations related to a village, not appellations in their own right.
Burgundy: What additional geographical denominations can be added to the appellation?
- regional appellation plus additional geographical denomination
- village appellation plus name of a premier cru vineyard
- Mâcon plus village name
- Grand Cru vineyard plus additional geographical denomination referring to a climat.
Classification system itself is not a guarantee of quality. Due to Napoleonic inheritance laws, majority of vineyards are owned by more than one domaine and hence the range of quality of the wines from even a small appellation depends as much upon the reputation and skill of the domaine as the reputation of the vineyard.
Burgundy: What can you tell about site selection for grand cru vineyards?
Grand crus are found in the mid-slope with premiers crus often surrounding them. Here, full ripeness can be achieved in the cooler years. The mid-slope has poor but adequate, shallow soils, good drainage, protection from the prevailing weather systems and good sunlight interception, all of which, in capable winemaking hands, contribute to producing wines with concentration, balance and length.
Lowest part of slope is typically village level, flat land beyond the top of the slope comes under generic appellations.
Burgundy: What are principal appellations in Côtes de Nuits?
- Gevrey-Chambertin: red. Largest village. Charmes Chambertin AOC and Chambertin Clos de Bèze AOC
- Morey-Saint-Denis AOC: mostly red. Clos de Tart AOC and Clos de la Roche AOC
- Chambolle-Musigny AOC: red for village. Bonne Mares and Musigny AOC
- Vougeot AOC: red and white. Clos de Vougeot AOC
- Vosne-Romanée AOC: red. La Tâche AOC and Romanée-Conti AOC
- Nuits-Saint-Georges AOC. mostly red. Premier crus are Les Saint-Georges and Les Vaucrains
Burgundy: What are principal appellations in Côte de Beaune?
- Aloxe-Corton AOC, Pernand-Vergelesses AOC, Ladoix-Serrigny AOC: village and premier cru: red. Corton Charlemagne Grand Cru AOC is white. Corton Grand Cru AOC has may lieux-dits, both red and white.
- Beaune AOC: red and white. Premier cru: Le Clos de Mouches and Les Grèves
- Pommard AOC: red. Premier cru: Les Rugiens and Clos des Épeneaux
- Volnay AOC: red. Premier Cru: Clos des Chênes and Les Caillerets
- Meursault AOC: white. Premier cru: Perrières and Genevrières
- Puligny-Montrachet AOC: white and Chassagne-Montrachet AOC: white and red. Le Montrachet AOC and Bâtard-Montrachet AOC
- St Aubin AOC: white. Premier cru: Sur le Sentier du Clou and En Remilly
Burgundy: What are the principal appellations in Côte Chalonnaise?
No grand cru
- Bouzeron AOC: 100% Aligoté
- Rully AOC: white and red. 1/4 is premier cru. Many grapes destined for Crémant de Bourgogne
- Mercury AOC: red and white. 1/4 is premier cru
- Givry AOC: mostly red. 2/5 premier cru
- Montagny AOC: white. 2/3 is premier cru
Burgundy: What are the principal appellations in Mâconnais?
- Mâcon AOC: red/rosé with a little white
- Mâcon-villages and Mâcon-plus named village: white
- Named village appellations: Pouilly-Fuissé AOC, Saint Véran AOC, Viré-Clessé AOC
Burgundy: What types of organisations are there in wine business?
- growers
- domaines
- négociants (Albert Bichot, Joseph Douhin, Faiveley, Louis Jadot, Bouchard Père et Fils)
- micro-négociants (Benjamin Leroux)
- co-operatives (La Chablisienne, Cave de Lugny (Mâconnais))
Burgundy: What can you tell about wine business?
50% domestic, 25% Europe, 25% outside Europe.
USA, UK, Japan.
Wines may be sold en primeur, like in Bordeaux.
Village names can drive up the price.
Beaujolais: What can you tell about the climate and soils?
Continental climate, adequate rainfall (740mm). The Saone River acts as a moderator. Region is subject to cold Mistral winds, it can affect flowering in cold, damp early summer weather. Also at the end of growing season when the thin skin of the grape is vulnerable. Vine orientation and training low to the ground mitigates the effects.
Northern part is hilly and has fas-draining granite, schist and sandy soils. Vineyards are situated south/south-east facing slopes. Here harvest is earlier than southern flat land part.
Beaujolais: What can you tell about Gamay Noir?
Early budding (spring frosts) and vulnerable to millerandage in cold, damp and windy conditions, which can reduce yields. It has a thin delicate skin, is vulnerable to rot and wind. Early ripening. Wines in Beaujolais can differ vary because of nuances on topography. Grapes grown on slopes with very good drainage, sites with very good sunlight interception and warm granite soils can create intense fruit character compared to the green leafy character often seen in less-ripe examples. Reducing number of buds helps to restrain high fertility and helps concentrate flavours. Traditionally trained as bush vines, nowadays on trellises to aid mechanisation. Most grapes are picked by hand because whole bunches are required
Beaujolais: What can you tell about winemaking?
Mostly made by semi-carbonic maceration. Chaptalisation is common, maceration time is 4-5 days to enhance fruitiness of the wine and the depth of colour. In addition to red fruit, they have the characteristic kirsch, banana and blueberry aromas of the method.
Cru Beaujolais wines may be made with extended maceration times. If the wines are aged in small or large barrels they are often made in a Burgundian style. These wines are deeper in colour, more full bodied with higher levels of tannin.
Beaujolais: Wat can you tell about the appellations?
- Beaujolais nouveau
- Beaujolais AOC
- Beaujolais Villages AOC
- Beaujolais Crus
Beaujolais: Tell about Beaujolais Nouveau?
It is a category within AOC regulations. The earliest any AOC wines can normally be sold is 15th December. By contrast, an exception was made for Nouveau styled wines that can be sold earlier from the third Thursday of November.
Wines are made carbonic or semi-carbonic. Bottled 3-5 days after fermentation has finished. Some wines have MLF. Fining and sterile filtration are common as is a moderate to high use of SO2.
Beaujolais: Tell about Beaujolais AOC?
Regional appellation. Max yield for red is 60 hL/ha. Often fruit from the southern part as the northern part is village level. Wines can be sold from mid-January of the year after harvest
Beaujolais: Tell about Beaujolais Villages AOC?
Northern part of Beaujolais - more ripe fruit, thus better quality of wines. Max yield for red is 58 hL/ha.
Wines are purple in colour with medium intesity fresh red cherry, raspberry, red plum fruit (often with kirsch and banana aromas), medium+ to high acidity, light to medium- body, medium alcohol and light to medium tannins.
Wines made from old vines (low intervention wines, often with oak), are medium+ to pronounced intensity in aromas and flavours with medium tannins.
Beaujolais: Tell about Beaujolais Crus?
- Brouilly AOC: most southern and warmest. Wines in a lighter more perfumed style
- Chiroubles AOC: highest altitude. Wines in a lighter and fragrant style with marked acidity
- Fleurie AOC: sandy soils producing lighter and more fragrant wine (south). In northern part more clay and the wines become heavier, have lower acidity and are more full bodied
- Moulin-à-Vent AOC: most powerful and long-lived wines
- Morgon AOC: Pronounced intensity black cherry fruit alongside red fruit, sufficient tannins to age in bottle (10y)
Saint Amour AOC, Juliénas AOC, Régnié AOC, Côte de Brouilly AOC, Chénas AOC
Beaujolais: What can you tell about wine business?
Many growers sell to co-operatives (25% of sales) or négociants. 60% domestic, 40% export to Japan (nouveau style), USA and UK.
Important négociant is George Duboeuf
Alsace: What can you tell about the Alsace in general?
It has a warm, sunny and unusually dry climate due to the protection of the Vosges mountains to the west. Mainly white wine (90%), monocépage and unoaked. There is significant German influence.
It has France AOC system since 1945.
The amount of plantings for still wines slightly decreased in the past decade while the amount planted for Crémant d’Alsace has grown.
Alsace: What can you tell about the climate in Alsace?
Due to northerly latitude it has a long growing season, a continental climate with cold winters and warm, sunny summers. Rain falls on the western side of the Vosges mountains. Rainfall is 600mm. This means that in summer drought can be an issue. However, wettest month is in August and driest months is in September and October. This can threaten flowering and fruit set and sometimes harvest.
A drying influence is the Föhn wind, a warm wind that both raises the temperature and reduces incidence of fungal diseases. High diurnal range helps to retain acidity
Alsace: What can you tell about the topography?
The best vineyards are often at 200-250m up to 450m. They face south, south-east or south-west, for maximum sunlight interception. Lesser quality vineyards are typically on the plain between the foothills and the Rhine river. Soils are varied: mosaic of terroirs. Generally, vineyards on the plain are on deeper, more fertile soils, promoting more vegetative growth while vineyards on the hillside have lower fertility, better draining soils promoting slower growth and thus better fruit quality
Alsace: What are the grape varieties grown?
Riesling, Pinot Blanc/Auxerrois, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris are the main varieties.
Noble varieties are: Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and Muscat, these are permitted for grand cru wines and regulated wine styles such as Vendange tardive and Sélection de grains nobles
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Riesling?
It’s a cold hardy variety that buds late. It needs a good site (full exposure to the sun and good drainage) and a long growing season to ripen. It can produce good quality grapes in high yields, has a good disease resistance. Wines are typically medium to pronounced in aroma and flavour intensity, unoaked and high in acidity. The style in Alsace is typically dry, medium to full body, medium alcohol, medium to high acidity with citrus (lemon, grapefruit) and stone fruit (peach) flavour with a pronounced stony/steely character
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Gewurztraminer?
Early budding and early ripening. It rapidly accumulates sugars, but is picked late to achieve fully ripe skins to maximise the aromas and avoid unripe tannins. Vigorous variety but only moderately productive, due to coulure. Can suffer from chlorosis and desiccation of the stem. In Alsace vulnerable to powdery mildew, grape vine moth and grey rot. Wines are medium lemon in colour with pronounced aromas of lychee, peach/apricot, rose and spice. They have medium to high alcohol, medium to full body and low acidity. Made in a range of styles
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Pinot Blanc and Auxerrois?
Still wines typically have low intensity aromas of apple and peach and medium acidity and alcohol. Auxerrois (which can be labelled Pinot Blanc) is an early ripening, low aromatic variety producing wines with low acidity. Often used in Crémant d’Alsace.
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Pinot Gris?
Early budding and early ripening. Produces moderate yield and susceptible to botrytis bunch rot and downy mildew. Can accumulate high sugar levels leading to medium to high alcohol levels. The wines have medium intensity aromas of peach and apple and are full bodied with medium acidity. Best examples have rich oily texture and have the capacity to age and develop honeyed and smoky notes.
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Pinot Noir?
Only black grape variety allowed. Historically, it produced rather thin and lean wines but a warming climate, learning from other regions and local demand have resulted in rising quality with both unoaked and oaked wines. Producers include Domaine Muré and Domaine Albert Mann.
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Sylvaner?
This variety is in decline in Alsace. Majority of Sylvaner wines come from older vines and very little Sylvaner is located on the valley floor.
Alsace: What are the characteristics of Muscat?
Both Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains and Muscat Ottonel are grown in Alsace, but in tiny amounts. The latter ripens earlier of the two, making it attractive to avoid autumn rains.
Alsace: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Single or double Guyot with fruit zone trained higher at 1-1,2m above the ground to reduce the risk from frost and humidity. Canopies are also higher to maximise exposure to the sun. Therefore, spacing between rows has to be wider. Average density planting. On the steepest slopes terracing can be necessary.
Main pests are powdery and downy mildew, grape vine moth, esca. 15% is organic.
Long harvest period, AOC Grand Cru and steep slopes have to be picked by hand.
Alsace: What can you tell about winemaking?
Single variety with the aim to preserve primary fruit character. Cool fermentation temperatures are used for Muscat, Riesling and Sylvaner, while mid-range temperatures are more likely to be used for Gewurztraminer. MLF is often avoided as the aim is to retain primary fruit. Very little new oak is used. Wines are typically aged in the same large neutral containers on fine lees but without lees stirring.
Alsace: What are wine laws and AOC regulations?
Chaptalisation is allowed. Max yield is 80 for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer, 90 for Riesling and 100 for Pinot Blanc. Within AOC it is possible to add the name of one of thirteen communes (lieu-dit), then the max yield for riesling is 72 and 68 for Pinot Blanc. Max yield for Pinot Noir is 60. Grand Cru yields are limited to 55-50.
Wel known Grand Cru producers are Rangen, Geisberg, Schoenenbourg. Producers such as Trimbach or Hugel have recently started to use the category. Since 2011 each of the 51 grand cru vineyards has become an individual grand cru, this will allow individual grand crus to vary their own rules.
Alsace: What are Vendange Tardive and Sélection de Grains Nobles?
Wines made solely from noble varieties, high minimum sugar levels at harvest are required. For Vendange Tardive minimum sugar levels at harvest give about 14-15% if fermented dry. Sélection de Grains Nobles must be made from botrytis affected grapes and be sweet.
Minimum sugar levels required:
- VT (Muscat or Riesling) 235 g/L
- VT (Pinot Gris or Gewurztraminer) 257 g/L
- SGN (Muscat or Riesling) 276 g/L
- SGN (Pinot Gris or Gewurztraminer) 306 g/L
Alsace: What can you tell about wine business?
Many growers sell to co-operatives or larger wineries. Over 40% of sales is by co-operatives that have a reputation for high quality wines.
75% of wines is sold in France. Top export markets are Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, North-America
Wine must be sold in flute bottle.
There are many styles of wine that can be made, so domaines can have 20-35 bottlings.
Producers: Hugel, Trimbach Zind-Humbrecht
Co-operative: Cave de Turckheim
Loire: What can you tell in general about the region?
The Loire river has many distinct wine regions. As a result it has a number of climatic zones and varieties typical of the various regions. The key varieties are: Melon in the Pays Nantais
Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc in middle Loire (Anjou-Saumur, Touraine) plus Sauvignon Blanc
Sauvignon Blanc in the Central Vineyards (including Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé)
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell in general about this region?
Close to the Atlantic Ocean. Principal variety is Melon (Melon de Bourgogne/Muscadet). A significant volume of the Folle Blanche variety (Gros Plant) is also grown making very acidic wines that are sold locally and nationally
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about climate and soils?
Climate is cool maritime with cool springs, warm and humid summers and the threat of rain at any time through the growing season but especially in March/April (affecting flowering) and in September (affecting harvest). Spring frosts are a problem. Producers use wind machines as well as heaters and burning straw bales.
Soils are well draining and this helps to mitigate the rain.
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about Melon?
It is the only allowed variety in the Muscadet appellations. Quite hardy variety, but buds early making it prone to spring frosts. It ripens relatively early, reducing the threat of rain at harvest and it can produce high yields.
Good resistance to powdery mildew. Tight bunches and is susceptible to downy mildew and botrytis bunch rot.
It makes wines with high acidity, a light body and lot to the low end of medium alcohol. The wines typically have low aromatic intensity (green apple) which is often made sur lie.
I may include up to 10% Chardonnay
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Due to high humidity, growers must monitor vineyards closely and spray to prevent fungal diseases. With a marginal climate for ripeness, progress has been made in recent decades to improve canopy management.
Similarly attention is now paid to the ripeness of skins and sees in determining the harvest date. However, in hot years the danger is that sugar levels may reach unacceptably high levels before the skins and seeds are fully ripe.
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about winemaking?
Chaptalisation is allowed up to 12% potential alcohol. Muscadet is typically fermented and aged in large, shallow underground glass-lined concrete vats, though stainless steel is also used. The idea is to keep the wine as neutral as possible and then to age the wine on the lees. MLF is typically avoided.
To raise the profile of Muscadet winemakers are experimenting with skin contact and fermentation in barrel, amphora or concrete eggs.
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about the technique sur lie?
This technique is highly typical in the Pays Nantais and is a way of filling out the body of what would otherwise be very light-bodied wines. After fermentation is completed, one racking is allowed to remove the gross lees. After this, the wine remains in contact with the fine lees through the following winter and until bottling. Ageing on the lees also retains the freshness of the wine and may retain a small amount of carbon dioxide, which is part of the style of these wines
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about appellations, wine law and AOC regulations?
2 large appellations (Muscadet de Sèvre et Maine AOC, Muscadet AOC) and 2 smaller ones (Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOC, Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOC)
Max yield for Muscadet AOC is 65 and for the other three it is limited to 55.
Wines are dry, low intensity aroma of green apple and grassy notes, high acidity and a light body.
Sur lie may be added on the label, these wines mus be bottled between 1 March and 30 November of the year following harvest and in the winery.
Muscadet cru communaux: 10 (Clisson, Gorges, Le Pallet). Grapes are grown in exclusive areas, lower max yield (45), wines are kept on lees for 18-24 months but cannot be labelled sur lie.
Loire: Pays Nantais: What can you tell about wine business?
Muscadet recently has sought to reposition itself as a source of terroir-specific wines of high quality with good value for money. Exports are 15%
Négociants play an important role, accounting for half of sales. Castel, Grand Chais de France and Ackerman now account for a large proportion of négociant sales. Promotional body is InterLoire (Interprofession de Vins du Val de Loire)
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell in general about this region?
Principal grape varieties are Chenin Blanc for dry, off-dry and sweet white wines and Cabernet Franc for red wines and as one contributor to rosé wines. However, Sauvignon Blanc is a key white variety in Touraine
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about climate and soils?
Moderating influence of the Atlantic Ocean decreases progressively in Anjou-Saumur and then Touraine. Touraine has a continental climate with cold winters and warm summers. Rainfall is 700mm. Spring rain can affect flowering and fruit set, regular summer rain increases disease pressure and rain in late summer and early autumn can affect harvest.
In Anjou, river Layon and its multiple tributaries help to create the misty conditions ideal for the spread of botrytis at the end of the growing season.
Wide range of soils including clay-limestone, flint-clay, sand gravel and tuff. More schist and limestone in Anjou and more chalk in Touraine. Overall, good drainage and water retention characteristics of limestone elements. To protect vines from chlorosis rootstocks such as Fercal and Riparia Gloire are used.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Chenin Blanc?
Buds early. It is a vigorous variety and can carry high yields. Prone to powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot and trunk diseases. It ripens late and unevenly, so harvest is in several passes through the vineyard. So often by hand.
CB is the dominant variety in the middle Loire where it produces a wide range of styles, sparkling wine, dry, off-dry and sweet wines. The dry and off-dry wines have medium intensity aromas of green apple and lemon (sometimes with steely, smoky character), medium alcohol and noticeably high acidity often balanced with some residual sugar. (Domaine Huet)
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Cabernet Franc?
It is early budding. Prone to coulure and therefore to a reduction in yields. It is a mid-ripening variety. If it is not ripened fully, the wines can taste excessively leafy. It is winter hardy. In middle Loire wines typically have medium to pronounced intensity red fruit (redcurrant, raspberry), floral (violet), aromas and can have leafy aromas, a light to medium body, medium tannins and high acidity. It can be used to make single varietal red wines or be part of a rosé blend. In eastern Touraine it is blended with Cot (Malbec)
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Grolleau Noir?
Early budding and mid-ripening. Prone to botrytis bunch rot. Used manly as a blending variety in rosés. Especially Rosé d’Anjou and Rosé de Loire.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Gamay Noir?
It is generally made by carbonic maceration, as in Beajolais. Some Gamay is found in Anjou; however, it is principally grown in Touraine as well as in the Central vineyards.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Cabernet Sauvignon?
Late ripening, it performs best in the Loire in temperate Anjou and here only really in the warmest sites where early budding is possible. It is frequently blended with Cabernet Franc in red wines and also used in Rosé blends
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about winemaking?
Chenin Blanc is fermented at cool to mid-range temperatures and thus can last several months. Large old oak or stainless steel are typically used vessels. MLF is often avoided and ageing is in neutral containers.
Cabernet Franc is crushed, fermented in concrete or old wood vats that allow punch downs and/or pump overs. Ambient yeasts are often used.
Many rosés are made by direct press, short maceration is used on some rosés.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What are key appellations in Anjou?
- Anjou AOC
- > Anjou Villages AOC
- Coteaux du Layon AOC
- >
- named village
- > Bonnezeaux AOC
- > Coteaux du Layon AOC Premier Cru Chaume
- > Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru AOC
- Savennières AOC
- > Savennières la Roche aux Moines AOC
- > Coulée de Serrant AOC
- Rosé de Loire AOC
- Rose d’Anjou AOC
- Cabernet d’Anjou AOC
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Anjou AOC?
Max yield of 60 for red/white and 67 for rosé. Anjou Blanc must have 80% Chenin Blanc and Anjou Rouge 70% Cabernet franc and/or Cabernet Sauvignon.
Anjou Villages AOC is only for red and only Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon, either as a blend or single. Max yield is 55 and wines can only be released in september the year after harvest.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Coteaux du Layon AOC?
It specialises in wines made from botrytis-affected Chenin Blanc. If the rot fails to develop, grapes may also be dried on the vine. For Coteaux du Layon AOC+named village it means that grapes need to be picked in several passes in order to pick only botrytis affected grapes. Wines have pronounced aromas of cooked citrus and apple with honey notes. They are sweet, medium+ bodied, medium alcohol with high acidity.
Bonnezeaux AOC and Quarts de Chaume AOC have sweet wines of high quality. The higher potential alcohol and the lower maximum yield results in wines of very high flavour intensity and a rich texture.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What are the maximum yields in Coteaux du Layon AOC and its appellations?
AOC – Max Yield – Minimum potential alcohol
Coteaux du Layon AOC – 35 – 14
Coteaux du Layon AOC + named village – 30 – 15
Bonnezeaux AOC – 25 – 15
Coteaux du Layon AOC Premier Cru Chaume – 25 – 16,5
Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru AOC – 20 – 18
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Savennières AOC?
Fully dry Chenin Blanc. South-facing slopes, low fertility, rocky schist soils and low yields give concentration and ripeness. Very high acidity and alcohol. Can be very austere in youth and have to age. Max yield is 50.
Savennières La Roche aux Moines AOC and Coulée de Serrant AOC: warm sites on slopes facing the Loire. Lower max yield: 30. Coulée de Serrant AOC is a monopole, owned and farmed organically by Nicolas Joly
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about the rosé appellations?
- Rosé de Loire: Range of varieties including Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Grolleau Noir. Max yield is 60 and the wines are dry
- Rosé d’Anjou AOC: mainly made by Grolleau Noir, but other options include the Cabernets, Cot and Gamay. Max yield is 65. Typically the wines are medium pink-orange in colour, medium intensity red berry fruit, medium+ acidity and medium alcohol and medium dry.
- Cabernet d’Anjou AOC: Must be made from the Cabernets, max yield is 60, typically a deeper colour than most rosé and medium-dry.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What are the key appellations of Saumur?
- Saumur AOC
- Coteaux de Saumur AOC
- Saumur-Champigny AOC
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Saumur AOC?
White, red, rosé still wines and sparkling wines. Whites are made from Chenin Blanc, reds from Cabernet Franc, rosé from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Max yield is 60 for white, 57 for red and rosé.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Coteaux de Saumur AOC?
Sweet Chenin Blanc wines are made with over-ripe grapes, with or without botrytis, picked in a number of passes through the vineyard. Max yield is 35
Wines are lusciously sweet, balanced by high acidity
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Saumur Champigny AOC?
Appellation for red wines made for 85% of Cabernet Franc. Wines typically are pale ruby in colour and have medium to medium+ intensity of redcurrant fruit, some times with leafy aromas, medium alcohol, high acidity and medium tannin.
Soils with chalk, flint and clay offer a helpful combination of good drainage and waterholding potential. Max yield is 57.
Most wines are intended to be drunk young. The Saint-Cyr-en-Bourg co-operative (nowadays known as Cave Robert et Marcel) championed the Cabernet Franc grape in a light, accessible style.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What are the key Touraine appellations?
- Touraine AOC
- Touraine AOC + subzone
- Vouvray AOC
- Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC
- Bourgueil AOC
- St-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil AOC
- Chinon AOC
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Touraine AOC?
White (Sauvignon Blanc), red (Cabernet Franc and Cot or Gamay), Rosé (Cabernets, Cot, Gamay, Grolleau) and sparkling wines are made. Max yield for white is 65
It is possible to add one of the 6 sub-zones, this allows differences between the varieties used, reflecting what is grown locally. E.g. Touraine AOC Amboise is made from Chenin Blanc and max yield is 55.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Vouvray AOC?
Most important white wine appellation. Minimum of 95% Chenin Blanc. Max yield is 52. Best vineyards are the slopes that overlook the Loire. Soils are flinty, clay and limestone over a tuff, enabling good drainage. Dry Vouvray is made in every vintage, some demi-sec in most years while sweet is rarer.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC?
100% Chenin Blanc with a max yield of 52. Many estates grow their grapes organically or biodynamically
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Bourgueil AOC?
Red and rosé wine. Principal variety is Cabernet Franc and only 10% of Cabernet Sauvignon is allowed. Max yield is 55
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about St-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil AOC?
Cabernet Franc in a lighter style and Bourgueil AOC. Wines are similar to Saumur-Champigny
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about Chinon AOC?
Highly regarded for red wines, but white and rose are also made. Principal variety is Cabernet Franc and only 10% of Cabernet Sauvignon is allowed. Max yield is 55. Wines range from light fruity, early to drink from short maceration on skins to more structured and powerful wines with a longer maceration period which are not released onto the market until up to two years following the vintage. Latter category comes from clay and limestone soils.
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine: What can you tell about wine business?
Anjou-Saumur produces twice as much wine as Touraine.
- Rose in Anjou ten times Touraine
- Anjou-Saumur more sparkling wine
Touraine makes more white and red than Anjou-Saumur
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell in general about this region?
Central vineyards is a name give to the 8 AOCs that are the furthest east of the Loire Valley. Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are the best-known AOCS with the most hectares under vine. They have a continental climate. Principal varieties are Sauvignon Blanc for whites and Pinot Noir for reds and rosés.
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about the climate?
The region has a continental climate with cold winters and warm summers. Spring frosts and summer hailstorms are a threat. Long growing season day lengths combined with low intensity and low heat makes for restrained flavours. Rainfall is 750 mm.
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Sauvignon Blanc?
Late budding and relatively early ripening variety. It grows vigorously and therefore best on poor soils. Prone to powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot and Esca/ Eutypa dieback.
Wines typically have pronounced intensity aromas of grass, bell pepper and asparagus with gooseberry, grapefruit and wet stone flavours (cooler areas) to riper passion fruit (warmer areas). Medium body and alcohol and high acidity.
Row orientation and canopy management can affect the flavour profile. More shade means more green pepper and grassy notes, while fruit in the sun will have more tropical fruit flavour.
In Central Vineyards, 70% of plantings is Sauvignon Blanc.
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Pinot Noir?
20% of plantings is Pinot Noir.
Wines are typically medium ruby in colour, light to medium intensity of raspberry and strawberry fruit, high acidity and medium alcohol.
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about winemaking?
Fermentation temperature is slightly higher for more restrained fruit expression. MLF is often blocked, but sometimes encouraged. Higher quality wines may be aged in old oak casks to fill out the body of the wine, but typically without the addition of new oak flavours
Loire: Central Vineyards: What are the key appellations?
- Sancerre AOC
- Pouilly-Fumé AOC
- Reuilly AOC
- Quincy AOC
- Menetou-Salon AOC
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Sancerre AOC?
Whites from Sauvignon Blanc and red/rosé from Pinot Noir. The steep hillside slopes, the river and the nearby forests provide moderating influences against frosts in spring. Max yield for white is 65 and for rosé 63 en for red 59.
White wines typically have medium intensity aromas of grapefruit and gooseberry, medium alcohol and high acidity. Rarely new oak flavours.
3 types of soil:
- Caillottes: very shallow soils of limestone. Wines from these soils are most aromatic and first to be ready to drink and have less ageing potential
- Terre Blanches: limestone and marl like in Chablis. Slow ripening on these soils which include some of Sancerre’s most famous vineyards: Côte des Monts Damnés and Cul de Beaujeu. Wines are the most structured that need long maturation before being ready to drink, they age well
- Silex: flinty soils that accumulates heat and leads to early ripening. Wines from these soils have stony or smoky aromas.
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Pouilly-Fumé AOC?
Only Sauvignon Blanc, max yield is 65. On more flatter land thus more prone to spring frosts, some producers have wind machines. Same range of soils as in Sancerre. Pouilly-Fumé wines tend to be a little rounder and less aromatic than Sancerre and often needs a little more time to really start to show (6-12 months in bottle)
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Reuilly AOC?
White: Sauvignon Blanc – 65
Red: Pinot Noir – 59
Rosé: Pinot Gris and Pinot Noir – 63
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Quincy AOC?
White wines only from Sauvignon Blanc (minimum 90%) and Sauvignon Gris, max yield is 65
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about Menetou-Salon AOC?
Same range of wines and yields as Sancerre. Vines are planted on gentle south facing slopes making them more vulnerable to frost than in neighbouring Sancerre. Wines of Reuilly, Quincy and Menetou-Salon are good to very good in quality.
Loire: Central Vineyards: What can you tell about wine business?
The appellations of the Central Vineyards promote their wines together via the Bureau Interprofessionel des Vins du Centre (BIVC)
Loire: In terms of wine business, what can you tell about the structure of the industry?
There are a lot of family owned businesses.
Négociants are very important selling 50% of all wine by volume. Estates sell 41% and co-operatives 10%
Négociants have increasingly opted to vinify their wines themselves rather than relying mainly on buying finished wines. The large négociant companies have wineries spread across the Loire. Examples include Grand Chais de France buying Chateau des Fesles and Chateau de Cléray and Ackerman buying Chateau de Varière and Chateau de Sancerre.
Equally, an increasing number of family estates has a négociant side to their business.
Loire: In terms of wine business, what can you tell about markets?
For Loire AOC wines the largest channel in France is the specialist wine retail and hospitality sector (44%) and then supermarkets (36%). Exports were 20% with the top markets being US, UK and Germany. Sancerre is by volume and value the most sold wine.
Loire: What can you tell about organic, biodynamic and natural wine?
Nicolas Joly was the founder of the Renaissances des Appellations/Return to Terroir group, now a worldwide group of biodynamic producers but with more producers in the Loire than in any other region. Total production of certified organic wine is below the French average but this is due to cool and damp climate. Loire Valley is a centre of natural winemaking with wines often being produced as Vin de France.
Rhone: What can you tell about the general differences between the northern and southern region?
Northern Rhone is continental in climate and predominantly planted with Syrah, while the southern Rhone has a Mediterranean climate and is planted with several significant varieties, especially Grenache Noir, Syrah, Cinsaut and Mourvèdre. These make red and rose whines. Whites wines from the north is from Viognier, Marsanne and Roussanne, in the south made from blends with Grenache Blanc.
Rhone: What can you tell in general about de entire region?
The River Rhone runs through, creating a range of aspects depending on the course of the river. Northern part is made of several clearly defined AOCs while the south has individual AOCs and Côtes du Rhône AOC and IGP.
74% red, 16% rose, 10% white.
Rhone: What are the black grape varieties?
- Syrah
- Grenache Noir
- Mourvèdre
- Cinsaut
- Carignan
Rhone: What are the white grape varieties?
- Viognier
- Marsanne
- Roussanne
- Grenache Blanc
- Clairette
- Bouboulenc
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Syrah?
Vigourous variety that needs to be protected from the Mistral wind. On the steep slopes of the top northern Rhone appellations individual plants are often tied to one or two poles as trellising is not possible. It is susceptible to mites and to botrytis bunch rot and Syrah decline/disorder. Mid-budding, mid- to late ripening
Syrah is the only black grape variety used in the northern Rhone crus. Wines are deep ruby in colour, medium to pronounced intensity aromas and flavours of violet, plum, blackberry with black pepper and herbal notes. Acidity and tannins range from medium to high. Syrah adds structure, fruit and colour to southern Rhône blends.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Grenache Noir?
High yielding, needs a warm climate to ripen. It ripens late. Very suitable to be trained as bush vine, it does well on dry low fertility soils. Has good drought resistance but is prone to coulure, downly mildew, phomopsis and botrytis bunch rot, bacterial necrosis/blight. Grapes can accumulate high sugar levels, making it suitable for producing Vin Doux Naturel. It contributes pale ruby colour, ripe red fruit (strawberry, red plum, red cherry) spicy and herbal notes, high alcohol, low to medium tannins and low acidity.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Mourvèdre?
Late budding and late ripening, it needs high temperatures at the end of the season to ripen fully and thus can be under ripe. Not drought resistance, needs small and regular amounts of water. Best pruned short and on cordon or bush vine. Produces low yields. Prone to mites, leafhoppers and sour rot. In the winery it is prone to reduction and typically aged in old oak.
Wines are parts of a blend where it contributes deep ruby colour, intense aromas of blackberries, blueberries and violets, high alcohol and high, firm tannins. It is the principal variety in reds and rosés of Bandol AOC.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Cinsaut?
Late budding and high-yielding with good drought and heat resistance. Yields must be restricted. It can suffer from chlorosis (on excessive lime soil), prone to esca, eutypa, mites and grape moths.
Used as small part in the blend where it contributes ruby colour, medium to medium+ intense aromas of fresh red fruit (raspberry, red cherry), high alcohol and low to medium tannins
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Viognier?
Early budding, often grown on trellis or pole to prevent wind damage. Yields tend to be low and unpredictable due to coulure. Harvest must timed precisely as the fruit needs to be fully ripe to have its typical pronounced aromas. If left too long the grapes lose flavour and acidity.
Wines are medium lemon in colour with pronounced aromas and flavours of honeysuckle, apricot and peach, with medium to high alcohol and low acidity.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Marsanne?
Late budding but vigorous and productive. Yields must be kept low. Performs best on stony and low fertility soils. Prone to powdery mildew, mites and botrytis bunch rot.
Wines are medium lemon in colour, sometimes gold, with low intensity honeysuckle, lemon and apricot fruit, an oily texture, medium acidity, full bodied and medium to high alcohol. In N-Rhone it is varietal wine or blend, in S-Rhone it is part of a blend.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Roussanne?
Late budding that grows best on low fertility, well-drained soils. Poor resistance to wind. Susceptible to coulure, powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot and mites. It is a difficult variety to grow.
Wines are medium lemon in colour, sometimes gold, medium to medium+ intensity aromatics of pear with herbal notes, medium to medium+ acidity and medium to high alcohol. Wines tend to age quicker than Marsanne.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Grenache Blanc?
Relatively early budding, good wind resistance. Similar like grenache noir. It is often used in white blends and in vins doux naturels. It contributes low intensity ripe green fruit and some floral notes, high alcohol and low acidity.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Clairette?
Vigorous, needs to be pruned short and excessive buds removed, relatively wind resistance. It ripens late and therefore can be prone to early autumn rains. It oxidises easily in the winery.
In the blend it contributes freshness and fruit, with white flower, fennel, apple and grapefruit notes, has high alcohol and low to medium- acidity.
Rhone: What are the characteristics of Bouboulenc?
Late ripening with loose bunches and thick skins and thus resistance to botrytis bunch rot. It grows well in warm and dry locations.
Wines are used in blends contributing lemon flavour, medium+ acidity and medium alcohol.
Rhone: What can you tell in general about winemaking?
There is a preference for concrete vats for fermentation and for small and large wooden vessels for maturation. When variety is prone to oxidation the wine is fermented and aged in concrete vats or stainless steel tanks. If the variety is prone to reduction and therefore has to be pumped over more often and is often aged in oak to provide gentle oxidation.
Rhone: What can you tell about the production of red cru-level wines?
Grapes are harvested by hand, destemmed, chilled and cold soaked for 1-3 days for colour.
To promote more intense aromatics whole bunches can be used. All vats are used for fermentation. Generally at warm temperatures to enhance extraction of colour, flavour and tannin. Maceration on the skins may last for 20-30 days with punch downs, pump overs or rack-and-return. Maturation is often 12-24 months in large oak vessels for Grenache Noir and small barrels for Syrah and Mourvèdre.
Rhone: What can you tell about production of inexpensive, high-volume red wines?
Harvested by machine, with hand picking and carbonic maceration is an option to enhance colour and fruit intensity and produce wines with low tannins. Large producers use flash détente or thermovinification to gain this style quickly. Cultured yeasts are used. Mid-range temperatures and maceration times are short.
Rhone: What can you tell about rosé winemaking?
E.g. Tavel. Typically made by short maceration and then pressing after 12-48 hours. Fermentation is completed as a white wine. Typically wines are aged in oak or concrete large vats.
Method is saignée, but there is no red wine making involved.
Rhone: What can you tell about white winemaking?
Fermentation at mid-range temperatures. MLF is sometimes avoided to retain natural acidity. Most wines are aged in large old oak or stainless steel. Natural full body of the white Rhone varieties means that lees stirring is sometimes avoided. Some wines are matured in oak, adding a layer of complexity and occasionally also fermented in oak for better fruit-oak integration.
Rhone: What can you tell about growing environment and grape growing in northern Rhone?
Moderate continental climate with cold winters, warm summers and adequate rainfall. Cold Mistral wind blows from the north and reduces the incidence of fungal disease. This wind also decreases vine vigour and leads to lower yields and higher concentration in the wines, but lower production.
Better vineyards are on steep slopes that increase the interception of sunlight and promote better drainage.
Rhone: What are the appellations of the northern Rhone?
Côte Rôtie AOC Condrieu AOC Saint-Joseph AOC Hermitage AOC Crozes-Hermitage AOC Cornas AOC Saint-Péray AOC Collines Rhodaniennes IGP
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Côte Rôtie AOC?
N-Rhone.
Only red wine. Vineyards on steep slopes, often terraced, face east and south-east. Soil is poor and stony. Due to steepness, work by hand is necessary and erosion is a problem. Training is single or double Guyot and tied to 1 or 2 poles (échalas).
Appellation was revived by Etienne Guigal and their single vineyard Côte-Roties (La Mouline and La Landonne) and the points awarded by Robert Parker.
Wines are Syrah (<20% Viognier), commonly propagated through mass selection with rootstock 3309. Max yield is 40. Wines have pronounced aromas and are typically softer and less full-bodied than the wines of the other top appellations.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Condrieu AOC?
N-Rhone.
100% Viognier. Max yield is 41. Vineyards are south facing. The small appellation surrounds the single estate Ch. Grillet AOC.
Most Condrieu is fermented in stainless steel or large woorden vessels. MLF is optional. Wines are typically aged on the lees for 10-12 months often with lees stirring.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Saint-Joseph AOC?
N-Rhone.
Historical heart is Lieu-dit Saint-Joseph. Opposite Tain L’Hermitage. Jean Louis Chave is highly regarded producer based in the AOC who has done much to raise the prestige of the appellation as has Domaine Gonon.
Nearly 90% is red, max yield is 40. Marsanne and Roussanne are allowed in the blend, this is rare.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Hermitage AOC?
N-Rhone.
Gaspard de Stérimberg (the Hermit). Whole appellation is planted with 1/3 white. Left bank of the river, appellation is south facing. Stony soils results in wines of pronounced flavour intensity, high tannins in reds and longevity. Famous climat for Syrah is at the western end of the hill that records the highest temperatures. Erosion is a constant problem. Yields are 40 for red and 45 for white. Red winemaking is traditional with lengthy oak ageing (12-18 months). Whites are a blend of Marsanne and Roussanne and are lees aged for 10-12 months. After long ageing these wines can develop rich, creamy and nutty flavours with outstanding complexity. Sometimes Vin de Paille is made (sweet). Chapoutier and Jaboulet (négociant houses) and Cave de Tain (co-operative).
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Crozes-Hermitage AOC?
N-Rhone.
Largest appellation. It surrounds the town of Tain L’Hermitage. The north sector of the AOC has a continental climate with marked Alpine influences (extremely cold in winter with strong influence of the Mistral). Long growing season, high diurnal range. Southern sector is more temperate. North is more steep slopes, south more flat land. Soils are more fertile than in Hermitage. Yield is 45. Best wines comes from Jaboulet’s Domaine de Thalabert.
(Semi-)carbonic maceration is used to enhance fruitiness.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Cornas AOC?
N-Rhone.
Red wine. Natural south and east facing amphitheatres with some steep slopes, warm Mediterranean climate, good protection from cold winds means that Syrah ripens here first from the N-Rhone. 100% Syrah, yield is 40. Wines have a reputation for tannic intensity. Significant producers include Domaine Alain Voge, Domaine Vincent Paris and Domaine Auguste Clape.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Saint-Péray AOC?
N-Rhone.
Slightly cooler. Devoted to white wines grown on limestone and granitix soils. Marsanne accounts for the vast majority of plantings with some Roussanne. Quality wines are aged on the lees for 10-12 months.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Collines Rhodaniennes IGP?
N-Rhone. ‘Hills of the Rhone’, used for red white and rosé wines made from grapes grown outside of the AOCs. Higher yields are allowed (80).
Rhone: What can you tell about the growing environment and grape growing in Southern Rhone?
It has a warm, Mediterranean climate with mild winters and very warm, dry summers. Rainfall is adequate. Irrigation is permitted if drought is severe within strict rules. The land is flatter en therefore less protection from Mistral. Low bush-trained vines are common for suitable varieties.
Rhone: What is the hierarchy of appellations in the southern Rhone?
- Cotes du Rhone AOC
- Cotes du Rhone Villages AOC
- Cotes du Rhone Villages AOC + named village (20)
- Individual appellations for the top village of the southern Rhone, known as cru
Rhone: What are the regulations for red, rosé and white wines in the southern Rhone?
- distinguish between principal, complementary and other permitted varieties
- State the total minimum proportion of principal varieties which must be used.
Rhone: What can you tell about Côtes du Rhône AOC?
S- Rhone. Covers al vineyard land suitable for grape growing in southern Rhone and the northern Rhone too.
Additional regulations for Cote du Rhone Village AOC is that the final blend must have 66% of at least 2 of the 3 principal varieties of which one is Grenache noir. Max yield is 44. In Cote du Rhone Village AOC + named village max yield: 41. In the Crus it is 35 for Chateauneuf-du-Pape and 36-38 in the others.
Wines from CdR AOC are medium intensity ruby, medium intensity red plum and blackberry fruit, no oak, medium acidity, medium tannin (or low if made with carbonic maceration), medium alcohol.
Rhone: What are the principal varieties for red/rosé wines in southern Rhone?
Yield is 51
Principal: Grenache Noir, Mourvedre, Syrah. Together minimum 60% of the blend. GN must be minimum of 30% and the combination of Mourvedre and Syrah a minimum of 20%
Other permitted varieties: Carignan, Cinsaut
Rhone: What are the principal varieties for white wines in southern Rhone?
Yield is 51
Principal: Bouboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, Viognier. Together they must make up 80% of the final blend.
Other permitted varieties: Piquepoul Blanc.
Rhone: What are the individual appellations of the southern Rhone?
- Gigondas AOC
- Vacqueyras AOC
- Vinsobres AOC
- Rasteau AOC
- Cairanne AOC
- Beaumes-de-Venise AOC
- Chateauneuf-du-Pape AOC
- Lirac AOC
- Tavel AOC
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Gigondas AOC?
S-Rhone. Since 1971. Up to 600m
Partly shaded by the Dentelles de Montmirail mountains. This extends the period of maturation and increases the flavour in the resulting wine. Mistral also cooles. Final blend here is based on the principal variety Grenache Noir (minimum 50%) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvedre.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Vacqueyras AOC?
S-Rhone. Since 1990. Up to 440m
Small amounts of white and rosé wine are made. Final blend is based on Grenache Noir (minimum 50%) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvedre
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Vinsobres AOC?
S-Rhone. Most northerly. Since 2006.
Dominated by plantings of Grenache Noir, recent years Syrah has been planted. Only red. Final blend is based on Grenache Noir (minimum 50%) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvedre.
Vineyards are south and south-east facing slopes of 200-500m. Some older plots of Carignan and Cinsaut are there and increasingly valued.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Rasteau AOC?
S-Rhone. Since 2010 Only red and little VDN.
Final blend is based on Grenache Noir (minimum 50%) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvedre.
Vines are planted on low south-facing slopes (100m). Sheltered from Mistral by enclave resulting in ripe full-bodied wines. Irrigation is allowed
Most of the wines is fermented in large vats, especially concrete, and matured in large oak vessels.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Cairanne AOC?
S-Rhone. Since 2015
Mainly reds in a fruity and approachable style. Final blend is based on Grenache Noir (minimum 40%) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvedre. Small amount of whites
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Beaumes-de-Venise AOC?
S-Rhone. VDN and still red wine since 2005
Some vineyards are shaded by the Dentelles de Montmirail. Final blend is based on Grenache Noir which with Syrah must together make up 50%
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Chateauneuf-du-Pape AOC?
S-Rhone. Summer residence of the Pope in the 14th century. In 1923 first AOC rules by Baron du Roy of Chateau Fortia. Red wine from Grenache Noir with Mourvedre and Syrah, White wine is from Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Bourboulenc and Roussanne. Harvest by hand. There is a possibility to make single varietal wines. Soils are limestone, clay, sandstone and sandy. Average yield is 30. Pebbles (Galet Roulés) radiate heat during the night.
Red wine is medium ruby in colour, medium+ to pronounced intensity of ripe red plum and blackberry fruit with spice notes and sometimes new oak notes, medium acidity, high alcohol and medium- to high tannins, White wine may be fermented in oak barrels for additional complexity or in stainless steel to preserve freshness.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Lirac AOC?
S-Rhone.
Across the river from Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Mainly reds and some rosé and white. For red, principal varieties are Grenache Noir, Mourvedre, Syrah and Cinsaut, together minimum of 90% in the blend.
Significant producer is Domaine de la Mordorée
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Tavel AOC?
S-Rhone. Only rosé. In final blend there must be Grenache Noir, and can include 12 varieties. No more contribution than 60%. Max yield is 46.
Wines are medium intensity pink-orange, medium to medium+ intensity of strawberry and raspberry fruit, medium+ to full body and medium alcohol (13.5%).
Rhone: What are other appellations in the southern Rhone?
Satellite appellations:
- Ventoux AOC
- Costières de Nîmes AOC
- Luberon AOC
- Grignan-les-Adhémar AOC
- IGP wines
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Ventoux AOC?
S-Rhone.
Southern and western slope below the high Mont Ventoux (=cooling due to altitude and cool air coming down). Vines are up to 450m. 2/3 red, 1/3 rosé and a small proportion of white.
Grenache Noir, Syrah, Mourvedre, Carginan and Cinsaut. Must be at least 50% of the final blend of at least two varieties. Yields are up to 60. Export is about a 1/4 of production and co-operatives are important in this area (Domaine de Fondreche)
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Costières de Nîmes AOC?
S-Rhone.
It is the south west limit of the Rhone wine region. Vines are grown on south-west facing slopes. 2/3 is red, 1/3 rosé and a small proportion of white. Red: Grenache Noir, Mourvedre and Syrah, minimum of 50%. Max yield is 60.
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Luberon AOC?
S-Rhone.
South-east of the Rhone valley. Vines on gentle slopes or flat land. Wine from Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvedre, at least 50%. Max yield is 55
Rhone: What can you tell about the appellation Grignan-les-Adhémar AOC?
S-Rhone.
Northern end of the southern Rhone. Mainly red blends (minimum 50% of Grenache Noir and Syrah) in a slightly lighter style than the areas to the south.
Some white and rosé
Rhone: What can you tell about the IGP wines from southern Rhone?
IGP wines may be made from Rhone varieties or international varieties.
Rhone: What can you tell in general about wine law and regulations?
Irrigation is permitted under strict conditions. Proof of water stress to vines is required, no irrigation is permitted after véraison and in no circumstances can irrigation be used to exceed the maximum yield allowed.
Rhone: What can you tell in general about wine business?
Many major companies and the largest négociants are based in the north but operate across the region as a whole. Examples are Guigal, Jaboulet and Chapoutier.
Co-operatives are much more important in the south than in the north, examples are Cellier des Princes and Cave de Tain.
Sales are in France (32% supermarkets, 29% specialist/hospitality, 6% discounters) and 33% export to USA, UK and Belgium
South of France: What do Languedoc, Roussillon and Provence have in common?
These three regions have low yields for AOC wines, due to low rainfall and a warm, windy climate (causing high rates of evapotranspiration)
Languedoc: What can you tell in general about this region?
Mainly on low-lying alluvial plain. Climate is Mediterranean and there is a large range of grape varieties growing. Many wines are produced at IGP level. The region profited from the waterway to Bordeaux and the railway to Paris, enabling wines to be efficiently transported.
Co-operatives play an important role, nowadays account for 70% of the area’s production.
Languedoc: What can you tell about the climate?
Climate is Mediterranean. High levels of sunshine, rainfall below 600 mm a year and very warm summers. The cool, dry Tramontane north-west wind blows about 200 days a year, this means low disease pressure from fungal diseases. Many vineyards are organic
Languedoc: What are the grape varieties grown?
Carignan Syrah Grenache Noir Merlot Cabernet Sauvignon Cinsaut
Languedoc: What can you tell about Carignan?
Late budding and late ripening. It can produce high yields (200). To have more flavour concentration, the yields must be lowered. When vines become old (>50 years) the yield naturally reduces.
It is prone to powdery mildew and grape moths.
Grapes are high in acidity and tannins. To soften these, winemakers often use carbonic maceration or blending with other varieties.
Wines are typically unoaked, medium ruby with simple blackberry fruit, high acidity and tannins. The best ones have intense black fruit with spice and earthy notes.
Languedoc: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Bush vines are often used as it is well adapted to the climate. To aid mechanisation, trellises are used.
Languedoc: What can you tell about winemaking?
Inexpensive: Large concrete or stainless steel tanks with cultured yeasts. Grapes are crushed and fermented on skins for 5-7 days on mid-range temperatures. Wines are made for early drinking.
Carbonic maceration is used to produce fruity wines, medium to deep colour and low tannins from tannic varieties.
For higher quality wines there is more use of sorting tables, fermentation at warmer temperatures, more ambient yeasts and barriques for maturation
Languedoc: What can you tell about the IGP wines?
70% of production in the Languedoc. Max yields are 90 for white/red and 100 for rose and a wide range of varieties (58).
There are three forms of IGP
- Regional (IGP Pays d’Oc)
- Departmental (IGP Gard)
- Smaller unit named after historical or geographical feature (IGP Côtes de Thongue)
IGP Pays d’Oc is the biggest producer, 10-15% of all French wine. 1/2 red, 1/4 white, 1/4 rose. The wines often have fresh fruity expressions. Top 4 varieties used are Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Syrah.
Half of production is sold in France, export is to Germany, Netherlands and Belgium
Languedoc: What are the AOC regulations for Languedoc AOC?
- Principal varieties are Grenache Noir, Syrah, Mourvedre
- Minimum of 2 varieties, 1 principal, not more than 80% single
- Minimum 40% of principal varieties in the blend
- Other varieties may not make up more than 30% of the blend.
- Yields are 50 for red, 60 for white
Languedoc: How can the red wines of Languedoc be grouped in terms of style, quality and price?
- Regional appellation: wines have medium intensity aroma and flavour with simple, blackberry and red plum fruit with medium tannins, acidity, alcohol and body
- Named appellations: medium to medium+ intensity aroma and flavour with blackberry and red plum fruit with herb notes (lavender, rosemary), medium tannins, medium to medium+ acidity, medium to high alcohol and medium+ to full body, some have oak.
- Sub-appellations: medium+ to pronounced aromas and flavours and medium+ tannins
Languedoc: What are the appellations?
- Corbières AOC
- Minervois AOC
- Saint-Chinian AOC
- Fitou AOC
- Faugères AOC
- Pic Saint-Loup AOC
- Terrasses du Larzac AOC
- La Clape AOC
- Picpoul de Pinet AOC
- Malepère AOC
- Cabardès AOC
Languedoc: What can you tell about Corbières AOC?
Hilly appellation with two key mountain ranges (Tauch and D’Alaric) provide sites for vineyards on slopes up to 450m. 90% is red.
At least 40% must be one of principal varieties (Carignan, Grenache Noir, Mourvedre, Syrah). Cinsaut can be maximum 20%. Max yield is 50.
Sub-appellation is Corbières-Boutenac AOC, Carignan, Grenache Noir, Mourvedre to be 70% of blend.
70% is sold in France, 30% is export to China, Germany and Belgium
Languedoc: What can you tell about Minervois AOC?
Appellation has a range of climatic zones based on altitude and proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Red, rose and white is made. Grenache Noir, Syrah, Mourvedre, Carignan, Cinsaut must be 50% of the final wine with no one exceeding 80%.
Sub-appellation is Minervois La Livinière AOC, only red. Situated on limestone terrace of gentle slopes. Syrah, Mourvedre, Grenache Noir at least 40% and with Carignan and Cinsaut at least 80% of the blend.
Languedoc: What can you tell about Saint-Chinian AOC?
Mainly red and rose from Grenache Noir, Syrah, Mourvedre at least 50% of the blend. There are two areas
- Northern: arid, fast-draining schist soils: Saint-Chinian Roquebrun AOC and Saint-Chinian Berlou AOC
- Southern: clay and limestone (less concentration)
Languedoc: What can you tell about Fitou AOC?
Coastal area is relatively flat, low-lying plains, with clay and limestone soils that have good water retention (less concentration). Inland area is more mountainous and has less fertile and fast-draining schistous soils.
Focus is on traditional varieties Carignan (10-40% of blend) and Grenache Noir (minimum 20%).
Mont Tauch co-operative is responsible for half of the total production.
Languedoc: What can you tell about Faugères AOC?
250-400m altitude on well-drained soils Max yields are 50, but average yields are low (33). High proportion of organic grape growing. Wines have to age a year before release, almost all wine (90%) is sold in France.
Languedoc: What can you tell about Pic Saint-Loup AOC?
More continental climate than other Languedoc appellations. Cold winter, warm summer, 1000mm rainfall. It is similar to northern Rhone. Syrah performs well here and must be 50% of the final blend. Only red and rose.
Languedoc: What can you tell about Terrasses du Larzac AOC?
Relatively new (2014). Vineyards are at a range of altitudes (120-200m up to 400m). High diurnal range gives ripe fruit flavour and fresh acidity. Only red wines and must at least be three varieties blend.
Languedoc: What can you tell about La Clape AOC?
New appellation (2015). It is warm, sunny, arid and windy. 80% of wines is red. Appellation is well known for white wines which must include a minimum of 60% Grenache Blanc and/or Bouboulenc
Languedoc: What can you tell about Picpoul de Pinet AOC?
Appellation is devoted to white wine made entirely from the Piquepoul Blanc variety. Max yield is 55.
Wine is dry and medium bodied with medium+ to high acidity and medium intensity lemon fruit with light floral notes. Wine is mainly exported (65%) to UK, USA and Netherlands. Sold in distinctive bottle. Co-operatives like Ormarine play an important role accounting for around 90% of production.
Languedoc: What can you tell about Malepère AOC?
Climate is influenced by the Atlantic as it is protected from Mediterranean influences by mountains. The wine must be a blend of at least two varieties and a minimum of 40% Merlot.
Languedoc: What can you tell about Cabardès AOC?
Both Atlantic and Mediterranean influences and must be a blend of 40% each of Bordeaux varieties and Grenache Noir and/or Syrah.
Languedoc: What can you tell about wine business?
15% is AOC wine and 70% is IGP.
Export of AOC wine is growing to USA and China.
Examples of higher quality producers are Mas de Daumas Gassac, Domaine de Gérard Bertrand’s Clos d’Ora.
Roussillon: What can you tell about the region in general?
Region is dominated by the Pyrenees and many of the vineyards are on slopes or foothills of the mountains. 70% is classified as AOC. 25% of production is VDN. Co-operatives are very strong in the region account for 75% of production. Most of the wines are red.
Roussillon: What can you tell about the climate?
Warm, windy Mediterranean climate with moderate rainfall (500-600mm) and high sunshine hours. Drought can be an issue. Wind plus low rainfall help to reduce fungal disease pressure but also the yields. High proportion of certified organic grape growing
Roussillon: What are the grape varieties?
- Grenache Noir
- Syrah
- Carignan
- Mourvedre
- Muscat Blanc & Muscat of Alexandria (VDN)
- Macabeu
Roussillon: What are the appellations?
- Cotes du Roussillon AOC
- Cotes du Roussillon Village AOC
- Collioure AOC
- IGP Cotes Catalanes
Roussillon: What can you tell about Cotes du Roussillon AOC?
Situated on lower slopes (100-250m). Red, rosé and white is made with max yield of 48. Principal varieties are Carignan, Grenache Noir, Mourvedre and Syrah. Max Carignan is 50% in the vineyard and Syrah and Mourvedre a minimum of 25% in the vineyard.
Wines must be made from a minimum of 2 varieties with max 80% of one variety.
Roussillon: What can you tell about Cotes du Roussillon Village AOC?
Only red wine, same rules as Cotes du Roussillon. Vines are grown on slopes from 100-400m resulting in cooling influence and thus greater acidity in the wines. More work has to be done by hand. Max yield is 45.
Five villages may append their names to this appellation, like Tautavel (max yield is 42). Some villages require Carignan to be made with carbonic maceration.
Roussillon: What can you tell about Collioure AOC?
Same boundaries as Banyuls. Full-bodied, dry red and white wines are made from grapes grown on steep terraces. Red wines are made from Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvedre. White wines are made from Grenache Gris. Max yield is 40, typical is 20-25.
Roussillon: What can you tell about IGP Cotes Catalanes?
This area covers the Pyrénées-Orientales département and is used by producers for red an white wines, including some super-premium white wines for example from Domaine Gauby.
Roussillon: What can you tell about wine business?
Co-operatives are very important but individual wineries are increasing. High quality winemakers include Domaine Gauby, Clos de Fées and Le Soula.
80% of dry wine is sold in France and export is to China, Belgium and Germany.
Provence: What can you tell in general about the region?
The region is virtually synonymous with pale pink rosé made from Grenache Noir and Carignan. Rose accounts for 90% of Provence’s AOC wine.
Also red wine is made from Grenache Noir, Syrah, Cinsaut, Mourvedre and Carignan and white wine is made from Vermentino (Rolle) and Clairette.
Provence: What can you tell about the climate?
Warm Mediterranean with adequate rainfall. Cold Mistral can provide a cooling influence and helps to reduce fungal disease. Cold winds can interrupt flowering and fruit set. The best sites have shelter from the Mistral. Altitude up to 400m inlands provide a moderating influence
Provence: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Bush vines are replaced by trellised vines to aid mechanisation. Grapes grown for making rosé are picked earlier than for red wine to retain acidity. But when wine is made by short maceration it is important that tannins are sufficiently ripe.
Provence: What can you tell about rosé winemaking?
Pale colour comes from low level of colour in the skins of the varieties and AOC regulations allow for 20% of white varieties in the blend.
Rose is made by direct pressing (most used) or short maceration on skins. Must is typically acidified. For best quality, fruit is handled protectively by chilling it to 4C. Fermentation is in stainless steel often with the use of cultured yeasts. Fermentation temperatures are 14-18C in order to preserve primary fruit but avoid banana. MLF is often blocked.
Provence: What are harvesting and pressing options for rose?
Hand harvest, whole bunch pressing:
Advantages: less stress on grapes, fruit is sorted in vineyard, gentler pressing, more juice is produced
Disadvantages: picking team required, difficult to find labour, labour not available in early morning, more expensive and slower, whole bunch pressing is slower
Machine harvesting, short maceration/hold in press:
Advantages: fast, cheaper, no labour needed, grapes can be picked at night, shortest delay between picking and processing
Disadvantages: up to date machines, grapes are destemmed thus whole bunch not possible, higher pressure needed because of destemmed grapes
Provence: What are the appellations?
- Cotes de Provence AOC
- Bandol AOC
- Other appellations
Provence: What can you tell about Cotes de Provence AOC?
90% is rose. Principal varieties required for rose are Grenache Noir, Cinsaut, Mourvedre, Syrah and Tibouren, max yield is 55, typical is 45.
Sub-zone Cotes de Provence Sainte-Victoire AOC: max yield 50.
Rose is pale pink-range with light to medium intensity aromas of raspberry and red plum with herbal notes, medium acidity, medium body and medium alcohol.
On the Var departement the appellations are Coteaux Varois en Provence AOC and Coteaux d’Aix-en-Provence AOC (both max yield 60, principal variety is Counoise)
Les Baux de Provence AOC makes red wines from Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvedre (at least 60% of the blend)
Provence: What can you tell about Bandol AOC?
More red wines than rosé. Vineyards are on south-facing slopes protected from the wind. Soils are typically rocky (limestone and clay) with low fertility.
Wines typically feature Mourvedre that generally ripens reliably in the area. Red wines must be 50-95% Mourvedre, max yields are 40. Rose must have 20-95% Mourvedre.
Significant producer is Domaine Tempier. Co-operatives are responsible for 50% of production.
Provence: What can you tell about the other appellations?
Bellet AOC Cassis AOC (whites) Palette AOC (made by Ch. Simone). In 1955 Cru classé status was granted to 23 estates of which 18 remain. Examples are Clos Mireille and Domaine Rimaurescq
Provence: What can you tell about wine business?
65% is sold domestically. Top export is USA and UK.
In the Var 60% is produced by co-operatives while large négociants account for 50% of the production in Provence as a whole.
South-West France: What can you tell in general about this region?
The climate is broadly similar to Bordeaux, in that the whole region is influenced to some extend by the Atlantic. Starting with Madiran and Jurancon, then Bergerac, Monbazillac and Cahors. The further away from the ocean, the warmer the summers and slightly less rainfall.
South-West France: What can you tell about Bergerac AOC?
50% is red, 10% is rosé, 40% is white (both sweet and dry). The region has clay and limestone soils with some gravel. Wines are a blend of principal varieties, for red that is Cabernet Sauvignon/Franc, Malbec, Merlot. Max yield is 67 for white, 60 for red.
Cotes de Bergerac AOC is restricted to main Bordeaux varieties, max yield is 50, wines are predominantly Merlot.
90% is sold in France, largest export markets are China, Belgium and UK.
South-West France: What can you tell about Monbazillac AOC?
Only sweet white wines. Made by botrytis affected grapes or late harvest. The River Dordogne and its tributaries help the development of moist air.
Grapes are hand harvested. Wine must be at least 80% of principal varieties, Sauvignon Blanc/Gris, Sémillon and Muscadelle. Max yield is 30.
Less than 10% is exported to mainly north-west Europe.
South-West France: What can you tell about Cahors and its growing environment?
Famous for Black wine of Cahors, because of its black colour. Planted with Malbec (85%).
Climate receives some influence from Atlantic, but is warmer and drier than Bordeaux (800mm). Tannat is also used in the blend (<10%)
Next to the river Lot, vineyards are on rich, alluvial soils via the mid slope (with poorer soils) to plateaus on 350m on low nutrient limestone soils.
Training is single Guyot (or Bush or cordon). Often machine harvesting is used.
South-West France: What can you tell about Malbec in Cahors?
Also known as Cot. Vigorous variety, susceptible to coulure. Wines from Cahors with a high percentage of Malbec are deep ruby in colour with medium to pronounced levels of violet, red and black plum fruit, medium to medium+ acidity and medium+ to high tannin. Better quality wines are aged in French oak barriques. which adds vanilla and sweet spice notes.
South-West France: Cahors: What can you tell about winemaking and wine law?
Cahors AOC must be a minimum of 70% Malbec with the rest begin Merlot and/or Tannat. Destemming is required by appellation. Styles vary from early drinking (more Merlot; 7-10 days on skins) to wines intend to bottle age (15-25 days on skins)
South-West France: Cahors: What can you tell about wine business?
80% is produced by private companies and 20% by a single co-operative: Cooperative des Vignerons d’Olt which belongs to Vinovalie. Growers have three levels of quality and price:
- Tradition: inexpensive 70-85% Malbec, grown on richer soils
- Prestige: mid-priced, grown mid-slope
- Spéciale: 100% Malbec, premium priced, grown on highest plateau
Prestige and Spéciale are grown at lower yields and thus have higher fruit concentration and longer expected ageing potential.
70% is sold domestically, Export is to UK, Canada and USA.
South-West France: What can you tell about Madiran and the growing environment?
Madiran has some Atlantic influence with a relatively high rainfall of 1000mm. The summers are warm and sunny, autumn is dry with warm days and cool nights and there is a hot dry southern wind, Föhn.
Madiran comprises four large, roughly parallel ridges oriented north-south with steep west-facing slopes. Soils are clay and limestone. On the flatter land, clay and clay and loam soils predominate resulting in wines less tannic and that can be drunk earlier
Vines are trained with Cordon de Royat or cane-replacement system
South-West France: Madiran: What can you tell about Tannat?
Vigorous variety and thus best trellised. Mid-ripening and prone to botrytis bunch rot. It is a highly tannic variety.
Wines are deep ruby in colour with pronounced aromas and flavours of blackberry and blackcurrant plus oak flavours, high tannins, high acidity with a full body and alcohol that ranges from the top end of medium to high.
South-West France: Madiran: What can you tell about winemaking and wine law?
Madiran AOC must be made with 60-80% Tannat, blended with Cabernet Franc/Sauvignon and/or Fer.
Grapes must be destemmed, max yield is 55. To soften tannins winemakers often used shorter maceration times, ageing in oak and through bottle age. In 1991, Patrick Ducournau, developed micro-oxygenation.
Early drinking styles are made by picking only ripest grapes, gentle pressing and micro-oxygenation.
Wines can be sold from beginning of November the year after harvest.
South-West France: Madiran: What can you tell about wine business?
80% is sold in France, export markets are UK, Belgium and Germany. Production is split evenly between private growers and co-operatives. Co-operative: Cave de Crouseilles and Plaimont. Producers: Alain Brumont and Ch. d’Aydie
South-West France: Jurancon: What can you tell in general about the region?
The regio is at the foothills of the Pyrenees at an altitude of 300m. Wines are dry and sweet white from Petit Manseng and Gros Manseng. 70% is medium-sweet or sweet and 30% is dry. There are three styles:
- Jurancon Vendanges Tardives (sweet): intense aromas and flavours of lemon and mango, high acidity and alcohol between the top end of medium and high with a full body
- Jurancon (medium-sweet)
- Jurancon Sec (dry)
South-West France: Jurancon: What can you tell about the growing environment?
Jurancon has a mild, humid climate with high annual rainfall 1200mm. Vineyards are planted on slopes fro good drainage to offset badly timed rainfall. Best sites are south and south-west facing for maximum sunlight interception.
Föhn wind it hot and dry and blows in spring and autumn drying the air and ventilating the canopy and boosting temperature. This helps to produce over-ripe berries. Soils are a mixture of limestone, clay and stones.
Harvest is selective picking, starting in October. Last two selections are carried out after over-ripe grapes have been dried on the vine.
South-West France: Jurancon: What can you tell about Petit Manseng?
Early budding, mid to late ripening, thick skins and is resistant to botrytis bunch rot making it suitable for late harvesting. Moderately aromatic, retains high acidity, high alcohol making it important to balance full flavour ripeness, acidity and potential alcohol
South-West France: Jurancon: What can you tell about Gros Manseng?
Same characteristics as Petit Manseng but higher yields and less aromatic concentration. Used for dry wines.
South-West France: Jurancon: What can you tell about winemaking and wine law?
Three styles of Jurancon must be made with a minimum of 50% of Petit and/or Gros Manseng.
- Jurancon Sec: dry max yield 60
- Jurancon: medium sweet, minimum 40g residual sugar, max yield 40
- Jurancon Vendanges Tardives: sweet, minimum 55g residual sugar, no enrichment allowed, max yield 40. Grapes may not be picked before 2 November.
Higher quality wines are fermented and aged in oak for 12-18 months. MLF does not take place as pH is low and acidity high.
South-West France: Jurancon: What can you tell about wine business?
Small percentage is exported. Significant producer include Domaine Cauhapé. Co-operative: Cave de Gan (half of production).
IGP wines: IGP Cotes de Gascogne: successful marketing its white wines in export markets of UK and northern Europe, lead by Tariquet and Plaimont. Wines are from Colombard (producing neutral white wine with medium to medium+ acidity), Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay.
Jura: What can you tell in general about the region?
In the Jura very distinctive wines are made. Especially those from local varieties, white Savagnin and black Poulsard and Trousseau. Also Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are grown in the region.
Jura: What can you tell about the climate?
Climate is moderately continental with high rainfall (1100mm). Early summer rain can threaten flowering and fruit set and can make work in the vineyard difficult. High fungal disease pressure.
Vineyards are on west-facing slopes of the Jura Mountains at altitudes of between 250-400m with soils that are mainly clay and marl, with limestone. Vines are replacement cane pruned at height to mitigate spring frosts. VSP is used to enhance air flow in the canopy
Jura: What are the grape varieties grown?
Chardonnay (most planted, much goes into Crémant du Jura)
Savagnin
Poulsard
Pinot Noir (used in multi-variety red blends, in Cremant and as a single variety)
Trousseau
Jura: What can you tell about Savagnin?
White variety that makes both conventional white wine and wine in oxidative styles (Vin Jaune). Buds early, thick skinned variety with good resistance to fungal diseases. Thrives on slopes with marl. Conventional wines have high acidity and medium- lemon and apple fruit, medium body and alcohol
Jura: What can you tell about Poulsard?
Ploussard. Most planted black variety, buds very early. Prone to coulure and to all fungal diseases as it is thin skinned. It ripens early.
Wines are pale ruby, almost translucent in colour and have low intensity red fruit (redcurrant, cranberry), low tannins, high acidity, low end of medium alcohol, light body.
Jura: What can you tell about Trousseau?
Black variety with thick skins giving resistance to fungal diseases though it can suffer from botrytis bunch rot. Prone to poor flowering and coulure. It needs a warm site
Wines are pale ruby in colour and have low intensity red fruit (red cherry), low to medium tannins, medium to high acidity, low end of medium alcohol and a light to medium- body.
Jura: What can you tell about winemaking for conventional wines?
White wines are fermented in stainless steel or old barrels at mid-range temperatures as fruity esters are not desired, MLF is carried out.
Red wines are macerated on skins for a short time (5-10 days) with temperatures limited to 30C. Poulsard may be made by (semi-)carbonic maceration. Wines are aged in old barrels for a few months.
Jura: What can you tell about the oxidative style of wine?
Vin Jaune. Made by fermenting Savagnin grapes to dryness and then ageing in barrels with a headspace. Le Voile develops (like flor). Barrels must not be topped up or moved for 60 months. If barrel is withdrawn earlier it is made to oxidative savagnin or blended with Chardonnay.
Vin Jaune is medium lemon to medium gold in colour and has pronounced aromas of bread dough, walnuts, ginger and green apple with high acidity. Wines are dry, often with high alcohol and medium bodied.
Jura: What can you tell about Vin de Paille?
It is a sweet wine made by drying the grapes off the vine. All varieties except Pinot Noir are allowed. Wines must be above 14% and residual sugar levels are typically 70-120 gr/L. Must be aged in oak for a minimum of 18 months and released no sooner than three years after vintage.
Jura: What are the appellations?
- Cotes du Jura: regional appellation. All 5 wine styles can be made but most is white.
- Arbois AOC: All 5 wine styles can be made but most is red
- Chateau-Chalon AOC: Vin Jaune, max yield is 30
- L’Etoile AOC: White only
Jura: What can you tell about wine law?
White: Savagnin and/or Chardonnay must make up 80% of blend, max yield is 60
Red/Rose: Pinot Noir, Poulsard and Trousseau must make up 80%, max yield is 55
Vin Jaune: Only Savagnin, max yield is 60, 60 months under voile. Can be sold in january 7 years after harvest. Must be bottled in 62 cL Clavelin bottle
Vin de Paille: max yield is 20
Jura: What can you tell about wine business?
Production: 50% estates, 30% négociants and 4 co-operatives. 3 companies sell 50% of the wine: co-operative Fruitière Vinicole d’Arbois, négociant La Maison de Vigneron and Henri Maire.
20% organic grape growing.
20% is exported. Percée de Vin Jaune is a large annual wine fair
Germany: What can you tell about the history?
Riesling covers 1/4 of vineyard area. In the middle ages, Schloss Johannisberg and Kloster Eberbach in Rheingau, were planted in the 12th century. Vineyards expanded along the river Rhine. From the 17th century on, vineyard area declined due to Thirty years war, first and second world war. In 1830, there were new wine laws based on the must weight of the grapes.
In 19th and 20th century Hochschule Geisenheim University in Rheingau and the Julius Kühn institut in Pfalz were founded. In rebuilding the vineyards, choices for volume rather than quality were made. Flurbereinigung: consolidation of small fragmented vineyards and the building of access roads, aiming to increase efficiency, making mechanisation easier and reduce the cost of viticulture.
Germany: What can you tell about the climate?
Latitude is 49-50 (except Baden). Climate is cool continental. Site selection is essential and many vineyards are along the Rhine and its tributaries. The river play an essential role in radiating heat, moderating temperature and extending the growing season. Best vineyards are on steep, south facing slopes
Winters can be very cold, spring can have spring frost, summers are warm, but wet. Rainfall is 500-800mm. Autumns are long and dry. Mountain ranges such as Taunus and Haardt shelter vineyard areas from cold winds and worst of rain. Vineyards are planted at low altitude (200m). Baden is further south and drier, warmer and sunnier.
Germany: What can you tell about the soils?
In Mosel and Ahr, dark coloured slate retains heat during the day and radiates it out again at night.
There are pockets of calcareous soils. In Baden, Pfalz and Reinhessen it is planted with Spätburgunder, Weissburgunder and Chardonnay. In Franken it is planted with Silvaner. Grauburgunder prefers heavey, more clayey soils.
On steep slopes, erosion is a major problem needing maintenance and adding to costs.
Germany: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Yields are very high for Deutscher Wein and Landwein (150) and for Qualitätswein (105). There is a lot vintage variation, but fruit ripeness is improved by better clonal selection, summer pruning, green harvesting and selective hand harvesting. Good canopy management is essential to maximise sun exposure and aid air circulation. Many vineyards are use single and double replacement cane pruning with VSP tresllising and Pendelbogen (canes arched in trellis).
Only 9% is organic, with many steep vineyards, spraying is often done by helicopter.
On steep vineyards vines are terraced or planted up the slopes, mechanisation is difficult or impossible.
Germany: What are the grape varieties planted and allowed?
Riesling Müller Thurgau Spätburgunder Dornfelder Grauburgunder Weissburgunder Silvaner (Chardonnay, Portugieser, Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier), Trollinger (Schiava), Lemberger (Blaufränkisch))
Germany: What are the characteristics of Riesling?
23% of all plantings. It is late budding with thick wood and late ripening. It needs good sun exposure and dry autumns. It can produce all ranges of styles. It retains high acidity even when fully ripe, providing balance in sweet wines and giving the wines significant potential for ageing. It can produce high natural levels of sugar and is susceptible to botrytis.
It is capable of making wines with pronounced intensity and great aromatic complexity. Fruit flavours range from green fruit to tropical, can show floral aromas such as white flowers or honeysuckle. With age the wines develop toast, honeyed and petrol-like aromas.
Germany: What are the characteristics of Müller Thurgau?
Rivaner. One of the earliest German crossings. Earlier ripening than Riesling, can produce high yields in almost any condition. It was used in the production of Liebfraumilch. It has medium acidity and gives wines with attractive but relatively simple floral and fruity aromas for early drinking
Germany: What are the characteristics of Spätburgunder?
11,5%. Germany is increasingly being recognised as producing high-quality, complex and dry wines often with oak ageing. Producers use higher quality clones, improve canopy management and select harvesting dates to balance alcohol, acidity and ripeness of fruit and tannins. Some use whole bunch fermentation
Germany: What are the characteristics of Dornfelder?
It produces wines that are deep in colour, high in acidity with fruity and floral notes. It is used to produce 2 distinctive styles of wine. On the one hand, a fruity easy-drinking style sometimes with a little residual sugar with aromas of sour cherry and blackberry. On the other hand a more complex style with ageing potential produced from lower yields showing greater focus on tannins and structure, fermented or aged in oak. Often planted in Rheinhessen and Pfalz.
Germany: What are the characteristics of Silvaner?
Often used for simple inexpensive wines. In Franken, where yields are controlled it can produce high quality. dry, medium- bodied wines with medium to medium+ acidity and a distinctive earthy characteristic.
Germany: What are the characteristics of Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder?
Grauburgunder particularly likes heavier soils and can produce wines with medium acidity and aromas of stone fruit and tropical (sometimes dried) fruit and honey. In style, they range from dry and medium bodied to fuller bodied, sweeter wines (Ruländer). Wiessburgunder can produce well balanced wines with medium+ acidity and delicate citrus and stone fruit aromas.
Germany: What can you tell about the German crosses?
Group of mainly white grape varieties developed by the German wine institutes to cope with Germany’s cool climate. Müller Thurgau is the first example.
Scheurebe can produce full-bodied wines with intense aromas of ripe grapefruit and peach. Although acidity levels are lower than Riesling, still high enough to make age worthy wines and some sweet wines.
Kerner also produces good quality wines with high acidity and some of the fruity floral characteristics.
Dornfelder is a black crossing
Germany: What can you tell about winemaking?
Enrichment is common practice, although not permitted in Prädikatswein. Most of Germany is zone A, thus enrichment up to 3%. Baden is zone B, up to 2%. Also acidification and de-acidification are allowed, mostly used only for bulk wines.
Traditionally large oak casks were used for fermentation allowing oxygenation.
The norm nowadays is stainless steel with the use of temperature control and excessive cleaning to maintain the primary aromas. Barriques are to a proportion used for red wines.
Grapes destined for Beerenauslese, Eiswein and Trockenbeerenauslese have very high must weights and fermentation will usually proceed very slow. TBA can take several months.
Germany: What can you tell about the wine laws?
Fundamental principle is that grapes are classified according to their must weight at harvest. Yields are limited.
There are four quality levels of German wine which are in increasing order of must weight
1. Deutscher Wein
2. Landwein
3. Qualitätswein
4. Prädikatswein
Germany: What can you tell about Deutscher Wein?
Formerly known as Tafelwein, this covers wine without a geographical indication made exclusively from grapes grown in Germany. Alcohol must be 8,5-15%. Almost all are inexpensive wines intended to be druk when young.
Germany: What can you tell about Landwein?
German equivalent of PGI wine. Minimum of 85% of the grapes must originate in the Landwein region named on the label. Alcohol must be 8,5-15%. In some regions only trocken or halbtrocken.
Germany: What can you tell about Qualitätswein?
PDO category. The grapes ust come exclusively from one of 13 designated quality wine regions (Anbaugebiete), the name must appear on the label. Wines can be made in all styles and minimum alcohol level is 7%.
Wines at Qualitätswein level and above must undergo laboratory analysis and a blind tasting prior to release. Those that pass are given an AP (Amtliche Prüfungsnummer) which must appear on the label. It indicates when the wine was tested, location of the vineyard and the bottler’s specific lot number
Germany: What can you tell about Prädikatswein?
It is a PDO category. Grapes must come from a Bereich, the name of which need not to appear on the label. The name of the Anbaugebiete must appear. These are wines produced from grapes with the highest must weights and enrichment is not permitted.
Can be produced from any grape variety, particularly associated with Riesling. There are six levels: Kabinett, Spätlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Eiswein, Trockenbeerenauslese
Germany: What can you tell about Kabinett wines?
Lowest must weights for Prädikatswein so the wines are the lightest in body and highest in acid. Can be dry to medium-sweet in style. Minimum alcohol level is 7%. Kabinett Riesling is light bodied, has high acidity and aromas of green and citrus fruit.
Germany: What can you tell about Spätlese wines?
Produced from fully ripe grapes, picked two week later than Kabinett. Wines have greater concentration of riper fruit flavour (stone fruit for Riesling), slightly higher alcohol levels and a fuller body. Minimum alcohol is 7%. Can range from dry to medium sweet in style.
Germany: What can you tell about Auslese wines?
Made from specially selected extra-ripe bunches of grapes. Hand harvesting is not compulsary. Even more riper and concentrated than spätlese. Wines often have honey characteristics. Some of the grapes are affected by botrytis which will give added complexity of flavour.
Last category in which the wines can be dry, although many wines are sweeter with a balance of sweetness and acidity that gives them potential for long bottle-ageing. Minimum alcohol is 7%
Germany: What can you tell about Beerenauslese wines?
Made from individually selected berries and must therefore be harvested by hand. Must weight is high so wine is sweet and fermentation is long and slow. Minimal alcohol is 5,5%. Berries need not be botrytized but it is a typical feature of these wines. With Riesling, the typical flavours are of very ripe and dried stone fruit.
Yields are very low and the wines are very labour-intensive to produce.
Germany: What can you tell about Eiswein?
Same berries as BA, but berries must be picked when they are frozen at temperatures below -7C. Once picked, the grapes must also be pressed whilst still frozen, artificial freezing is not allowed. Pressing releases small quantities of naturally concentrated juice with very high levels of sugar and acid. Grapes must be very healthy, unpleasant flavours of rot would be amplified. Riesling Eiswein tends to have high acidity and concentrated, pure peach and grapefruit flavours.
Germany: What can you tell about Trockenbeerenauslese wines?
Grapes must have been affected by botrytis, the shrivelled, raisin-like grapes produce tiny amounts of highly concentrated extremely sweet wines.
Sweetness is balanced by high acidity and this can help the wines age elegantly for a very long time. Fermentation is long and slow and rarely continues beyond 8%.
Germany: What are the Germany equivalents of EU labelling terms of sweetness?
- Trocken (dry) (<4g/l; or 9g/l if RS does not exceed acid by 2g/l)
- Halbtrocken (offdry) (4-12 g/l; or 18g/l if RS does not exceed acid by 10g/l)
- Lieblich (medium/medium sweet) (12-45 g/l)
- Süss (sweet) (>45 g/l)
German sweetness of wine is tricky to estimate because of a wide range of possibilities. Goldkapsel designates wines that are characterised by botrytis. Feinherb is used instead of halbtrocken
Germany: What are geographical labelling terms?
Bereiche: wine producing districts
Einzellagen: individual vineyard sites (2658)
Grosslagen: collective vineyard sites (167)
On the label the village where the vineyard is must be preceded unless the name of the property is so well known that it is officially permitted not to. Distinction is very difficult.
Germany: What can you tell about Liebfraumilch?
Medium-dry white wine of Qualitätswein level with at least 18g/l RS. It must contain at least 70% Riesling, Silvaner, Müller Thurgau and Kerner. Most is made of MT. The wines must come from Rheinhessen, Pfalz, Rheingau or Nahe.
Germany: What is Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter?
It was founded to promote wines made without must enrichment.
VDP has stricter regulations regarding grape growing and winemaking including much lower maximum yields, higher minimum must weights and growing predominantly the traditional grape varieties for their particular region. Members agree to abide by these regulations and are audited every 5 years.
VDP encourages sustainable viticulture. Much of the production is of dry wines, both white and red. Even if must weights are above those required by law, the dry wines must be labelled qualitätswein trocken. Prädikat levels are to be used only for wines with residual sweetness. Another principle is to emphasize the provenance of wines, therefore a four tier vineyard classification system is established refined in 2012.
Germany: What is the classification system of the VDP?
- VDP Gutswein: regional wines. Max yield is 75
- VDP Ortswein: village wines. Max yield is 75
- VDP Erste Lage: premier cru. Grape varieties are limited to suitable to region, max yield is 60, harvest is by hand, berries must be at least spätlese
- VDP Grosse Lage: grand cru. Best parcels, max yield is 50, Riesling is allowed in all regions (though only for botrytised wines in Ahr), Spätburgunder in all regions but Mosel and Nahe. Dry wines cannot be released until 1st of september the year after harvest. Red must be aged in oak for 12 months and cannot be released a year later.l Sweeter Prädikat wines may be released 1st of May after harvest. Dry wines are designated Grossed Gewächs
Germany: What is the Rheingau Charta?
It was founded to promote dry wines from the best vineyard sites of the Rheingau. The term Erstes Gewächs was introduced for the best sites in Rheingau and is now a legally protected term for wines from these sites. The wines must be produced from Riesling or Spätburgunder, hand harvested at lower yields, wine must be dry with a minimum must weight equivalent to spätlese. In 1999 the member joined the VDP, this means that Erstes Gewächs becomes Grosses Gewächs
Germany: What are the principal wine regions?
- Ahr
- Mosel
- Nahe
- Rheingau
- Rheinhessen
- Pfalz
- Franken
- Württemberg
- Baden
- Saale- Unstrut and Sachsen
Germany: What can you tell about Saale-Unstrut and Sachsen?
These are the only wine regions in the east of Germany. That predominantly produce white wines from Müller Thurgau, Weissburgunder and Riesling
Germany: What can you tell about Rheinhessen?
Largest area in terms of production and yields. Relatively warm and dry, sheltered by various mountain ranges (Hünsruck/Taunus). Inexpensive high volume wine comes from valley floor. White grapes (71%) with Riesling, Müller Thurgau, Silvaner, Grauburgunder, Weissburgunder. Dornfelder and Spätburgunder are the most planted black varieties.
High quality wine is made on the Rheinterrasse, a stretch of steeply sloping vineyards on the west bank of the river. East-facing aspect, moderating influence from the river means that Riesling will often show ripe lemon and peach flavours. The strip known as Roter Hang is distinguished by its Rotliegenden soil, iron-rich soil consisting of slate, clay and sandstone, in Riesling it gives smoky characteristics.
Significant producers include Weingut Gunderloch and Weingut Keller.
Germany: What can you tell about Pfalz?
A strip of vineyards between the Haardt Mountains and the Rhine plain, not situated along a river valley. The region runs norths from Alsace, Haardt mountains are continuation of the Vosges aiding a similar rain shadow effect, the Pfalz is the driest region.
White grapes (65%) with Riesling, Müller Thurgau, Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder. Dornfelder and Spätburgunder are the morst planted black varieties.
Most renowed vineyard is in Mittelhaardt (Bad Dürkheim, Wachenheim, Forst, Deidesheim, Ruppertsberg). Soils are limestone, sandstone, basalt and clay.
Significant producers include Dr. Bürklin-Wolf and the cooperative Winzerverein Deidesheim
Germany: What can you tell about Baden?
The region is split into multiple distinct areas. Main area is situated on the eastern side of the Rhine opposite Alsace and also benefits from the rain shadow of the Vosges, Baden is Germany’s warmest, sunnies and driest wine producing region.
Best known for red wine, Spätburgunder. The steep south-facing slope around Kaiserstuhl, an extinct volcano, produce the fullest-bodied wines with high alcohol and complex, smoky ripe fruit flavours. In cooler areas and on pockets of calcareous soil, the wines have more acidity and more delicate fruit flavours.
59% is white. Significant producers are Bernhard Huber and cooperative Badische Winzerkeller
Germany: What can you tell about Württemberg?
Produces mainly light fruity red wines by the central co-operative Möglingen. Warm summer temperatures are ideal for red wine and 68% of plantings is black. Trollinger, Lemberger and Swarzriesling and Spätburgunder are important varieties. From Lemberger fuller-bodied examples with riper fruit flavours, higher alcohol are produced often with oak ageing. Riesling is half of whites planted.
Significant producers include Rainer Schnaitmann and the large cooperative Württembergische Weingärtner
Germany: What can you tell about Mosel?
Whites make up 90% and Riesling is 60% of plantings. Site selection is essential to ensure grapes can ripen, best vineyards are on steep, south-facing slopes overlooking the Mosel. Dark coloured slate soil (grey, blue, brown and red) also plays an important part in radiating heat. The region is split into 3 sections: Upper Mosel, Middle Mosel and Lower Mosel. Middle is the largest and has the best vineyards.
Most Rieslings are paler in colour, lighter in body with lower alcohol and higher acidity than those elsewhere and have pronounced floral and green fruit aromas. Balance between acidity and flavour intensity gives potential for bottle ageing. Also sweet wines are made.
20% is produced by cooperative Moselland in Bernkastel. The region also covers the valleys of the rivers Saar and Ruwer. Due to slightly higher altitudes of the vineyards, temperatures are lower and acidity is higher. Famous producer here is Scharzhofberg in Saar.
Germany: What can you tell about Franken?
South-facing slopes along the river Main in a W-shaped course. Most continental climate with a short growing season. Especially spring frosts can be a problem.
Whites (82%) with Müller Thurgau as most planted. Second is Silvaner, producing the region’s best and most distinctive wines. Early-budding and early ripening. This variety gets the best sites on south and south-east facing slopes of chalky soils. Giving full-bodied wines with floral and wet stone aromas.
In the west, very good spätburgunder is produced by Weingut Rudolf Fürst. High quality estate is Horst Sauer, Bürgerspital and Juliusspital.
Bottle is Bocksbeutel.
Germany: What can you tell about Nahe?
Small number of vineyards, mainly small estates. Wide variety of soils and growing conditions. Region is protected by the Hunsrück mountains resulting in mild temperatures and low rainfall.
Mainly white wine, with Riesling (30%). Because of temperatures slightly lower acidity but riper fruit flavours and more body than Mosel. In the east there is the most warmest conditions with soils of slate and sandstone. Significant producers are Weingut Dönnhof and Emrich-Schönleber.
Where slopes are gentle soil is deeper and more fertile, planted with Müller Thurgau, Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder. Dornfelder and Spätburgunder are also planted
Germany: What can you tell about Rheingau?
Across the river from Rheinhessen, it is also protected from cold northerly winds by the western end of the Taunus Mountains. Aspects are south-facing giving Riesling more body and riper fruit.
In Rehingau focus is on quality, yields are lower. Best vineyards are situated on steep slopes around Rüdesheim, Geisenheim, Johannisberg, Hattenheim and Erbach. Soils range from sand, loam and loess around Hocheim in the east to sandstone and slate further west.
White (86%) with Riesling dominant (78%), mostly made in dry style but also reputed for its botrytised sweet wines.
At the western end, spätburgunder is the key grape. The steep south and south-west facing Höllenberg vineyard is renowned for producing relatively full-bodied Pinot Noir. Most famous vineyards are Schloss Johannisberg, Schloss Vollrads and the state-owned Hessiscche Staatsweingüter Kloster Eberbach
Germany: What can you tell about Ahr?
Most northerly, but black varieties dominate (83%). The river Ahr cuts a narrow, sheltered valley with steep, south-facing slopes and the soil in dominated by heat-retaining dark slate and greywacke.
Region is a source of good spätburgunder, fermented to dryness with relatively high tannins and spice notes from oak ageing.
Co-operatives (3/4) produce a lot, Mayschoss cooperative is the oldest in the world (1868). Significant producers include cooperative Winzergenossenschaft Mayschoss-Altenahr and Jean Stodden.
Germany: What can you tell about wine business?
Wine making in Germany is expensive by cost of labour and low yields. Best wines are produced by wine estates (coming from Church, Aristocratic families or charitable organisations). Co-operatives receive the crop from about 30% of the total vineyard area, but many are now quality focused.
Germany is the 4th largest consumer of wine.
10% is exported to USA, Netherlands, UK, Norway and Sweden.
Deutsches Weininstitut is a promotional body running the Riesling weeks to promote German wine.
Austria: What can you tell in general about the region?
It is known for high acid, dry white wines made from Grüner Veltliner and Riesling and also sweet wines. More recently red wines from zweigelt and Blaufränkisch are also made.
Mid-70 and 80ies there was the diethylene glycol scandal. It dropped exports from 1985 on. The Austrian Wine Marketing Board (86) was established to help change the international image of Austrian wine.
Austria: What can you tell about the climate?
Western Austria is mountainous, but the Alps flatten towards the Pannonian plain and along the Danube. Austria has a cool continental climate. North of the country the climate is influenced by cool northerly winds, whereas the vineyards in the south have more influence from the Adriatic. In the east the climate is influenced by the warmer Pannonian climate, whereas those in the west experience cooler breezes from the Alps.
Austria: What can you tell about the soil?
Two major types of soil:
- thin soils over rock (granite or gneiss)
- richer soils such as loess
Riesling is usually planted on the thin soils, grüner veltliner is planted on loess or clay. Other soil types include limestone an schist as well as gravel an volcanic material.
Austria: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Traditionally: Lenz Moser system: high cordon training, popular for high volume production. Nowadays it is single or double Guyot replacement cane with VSP for high quality production. Machine harvesting is common on flatter lands.
Disease pressure is low due to moderate precipitation, 450mm in Wienviertel to 850mm in Steiermark. Irrigation may be required when rainfall is low.
Max yields are 67,5, but average is much lower.
Austria: What are the grape varieties?
- Grüner Veltliner
- Zweigelt
- Welschriesling
- Blaufränkisch
- Riesling
Austria: What can you tell about Grüner Veltliner?
32% of all plantings. Needs richer soils like clay and loess. Can be vigorous. Skins are thick and can contribute a phenolic taste or bitterness to the wine. They contain the compound rotundone that gives a peppery aroma.
Wines have medium+ to high acidity and are typically not oaked. They range from simple wines with citrus and green fruit aromas to wines with pronounced citrus and peach fruit and great complexity of aroma and flavour.
Austria: What can you tell about Zweigelt?
14% of all plantings. Its a crossing between Sankt Laurent and Blaufränkisch. Ripens earlier and more easily than Blaufränkisch and can be high yielding. It is a vigorous variety. Ptassium deficiency in this variety can lead to withering of the grapes before they ripen.
Wines have medium+ level of acidity with medium tannin. Red fruit, particularly cherry, dominate. Styles range from easy drinking, fruity unoaked wines to full-bodied oaked styles that can age.
Austria: What can you tell about Welschreisling?
It has high levels of acidity and can have neutral aromatics. Mainly found in Steiermark where it is made into fresh, neutral, unoaked dry wines. There are also large plantings in Burgenland. It has thin skins that can be affected by noble rot and then used for sweet wines (BA/TBA). These wines have high levels of acidity with pronounced tropical fruit aromas and dried fruit with the ability to develop in bottle.
The grape can also be used in Sekt production
Austria: What can you tell about Blaufränkisch?
Tends to produce wines with medium+ to high tannins, high levels of acidity, deep colour and black fruit flavours. Variety buds early and ripens late. Generally only found in Burgenland because there is a long growing season. Thick skins mean it is not prone to rot. Can produce high yields, but when those are managed it can lead to high concentration.
Wines range from simple, fruity wines with little to no oak ageing to outstanding wiens with pronounced black fruit, spicy oak characters and high tannins. Leithaberg DAC and Mittelburgland DAC are prime destinations
Austria: What can you tell about Riesling?
Only 4% of plantings. Mainly found in Niederösterreich where it is planted in the warmest sites on thins soils. Almost always dry, can be full bodied with medium levels of alcohol, ripe stone fruit and sometimes tropical fruit flavours, with high levels of acidity. With development (10-20 years) they become nutty, honeyed and have petrol notes.
Austria: What can you tell about winemaking?
White: most typical aim is to preserve primary fruit and varietal characteristics. Often a short period of skin contact and fermentation in neutral vessel. GV and Riesling do not have MLF because of low pH. many leave the wine on fine lees for 6 months or longer to add texture.
Red: fermented in open top vessels with either punch down or pump over. Some use ambient yeasts. Wines can be stored in stainless steel or old oak vats. With the use of acacia vats, the wine gets oxygenation without vanilla characters of oak.
Austria: What can you tell in general about wine law and regulations?
The wine laws is a mixture of Germanic tradition and the Romanic system in which the style of wine is linked to an origin, the DAC (Districtus Austiae Controllatus).
The general terms are used:
- Wein: wine without GI
- Landwein: PGI
- Qualitätswein: PDO, these wines also undergo a government inspection. Within the category there are also Klassik wines (vintage + showing varietal character) and Reserve wines (dry wines with min. 13%, harvested and released later than standard wines.
In the category Prädikatswein is also covered, with no Kabinett. But with TBA wines from the city of Rust, situated on Lake Neusiedlersee: Ausbruch
Austria: What can you tell about the Regionally Typical Qualitätswein (DAC)?
It is an appellation system where the wine promotes regional typicity and these wines can display their origin. The first DAC was Weinviertel in 2001, nowadays there are 15 DAC’s.
To use the label, only specific permitted varieties are allowed and the wines need to meet the tasting panel criteria of what is deemed typical for that region.
There is also the option to use quality hierarchy such as regional (Gebietswein), village (Ortswein) or singe vineyard wines (Riedenwein).
Austria: What are other labelling terms?
There are 2 associations that classify quality and origin
- Österreichische Traditionsweingüter: 1992, OTW is a group of producers based in Kamptal, Kremstal, Wagra and Vienna that classified their vineyards based on soil type and climate, similar to Burgundy. in 2019, 81 vineyards were selected Erste Lage and the dry wines from these vineyards can carry 1OTW logo
- Vinea Wachau: group of producers in Wachau
Austria: What are the four federal states that have a significant amount of viticulture?
- Niederösterreich
- Burgenland
- Steiermark
- Wien
Austria: What can you tell in general about Niederösterreich?
Largest grape growing region with GV accounting for half of plantings. It can be broken down into three regions:
- Weinviertel in the north,
- the regions around the Danube (Wachau, Kremstal, Kamptal and Wagram),
- the warmer Pannonian plain in the southeast (Thermenregion)
Austria: What can you tell about Wachau?
North bank of Danube river, planted with Riesling and GV (never a blend). Most vineyards are on very steep terraces facing south. Riesling often planted on gneiss and GV on Loess. Rainfall is 460mm, irrigation is controlled but necessary. Humidity from Danube can cause noble rot. Significant producers include F.X. Pichler and Franz Hirtzberger, important co-operative is Domaine Wachau.
For Wachau DAC only Riesling and GV are permitted, harvest is by hand and for Vinea Wachau there are additional regulations for dry wines (<9gr/L RS)
- Steinfeder: fruity, dry with max 11,5%
- Federspiel: more concentrated dry wine, 11,5-12,5%
- Smaragd: highly concentrated with ripe fruit flavours, min 12.5%
Many wines will have citrus, stone fruit (and Smaragd: tropical fruit) flavours. Body is light to full, no oak, medium+ to high levels of acidity, Riesling rarely go over 14%, but GV can exceed this in hot vintages.
Austria: What can you tell about Kremstal?
Situated around Krems. Influenced by warm Pannonian plain to the east and therefore some Zweigelt is grown, especially in vineyards south of the Danube. Significant producers are Salomon Undhof, Lenz Moser and co-operative Weingut Stadt Krems.
DAC wines must be Riesling or GV. Red wines are labelled Niederösterreich.
White wines are made in a dry style with medium+ to high levels of acidity, body is medium to full.
Red wines are from Zweigelt in a fruity, easy drinking style with little or minimal oak influence, refreshing medium+ to high acidity and medium levels and tanning and body with red and black fruit aromas
Austria: What can you tell about Kamptal?
Named after the river Kamp. 50% of plantings are GV, then Zweigelt, then Riesling. Similar to Kremstal, but less humidity. Region has warm breezes from Pannonian plain, but also cooling air from the Bohemian Massif. Resulting in high diurnal range.
DAC wines only from Riesling or GV. Red wines are labelled Niederösterreich, Zweigelt is made in a fruity, easy drinking style. Some producers age Zweigelt in large oak casks to add complexity. Pinot Noir is more and more planted.
Significant producers are Bründlmayer and Hirsch.
Austria: What can you tell about Wagram?
Vineyards planted on north and south of Danube on gently rolling hills with a warm influence from the Pannonian plain. Region has a lot of Loess so GV is planted most. Region is known for Roter Veltliner, a local white grape producing full bodied whites that develop nutty aromas with bottle age. No DAC.
GV is made in Klassik and Reserve style with Reserve often with some subtle oak influence. Most wines are dry with medium body and high levels of acidity.
Austria: What can you tell about Weinviertel?
Largest appellation of Niederösterreich. GV accounts for half of plantings. Region is fairly dry with 400-600mm. Cooling breezes from the north allow high diurnal range meaning peppery aromas and high acidity.
DAC wiens only from GV, Reserve wines have a minimum of 13% and allow for some oak and/or inclusion of some botrytis affected grapes (adds richness and complexity). These wines are the most peppery from Austria. The wines have citrus and green fruit aromas with medium to medium+ body and high levels of acidity. Significant producer include Sohm&Kracher.
Austria: What can you tell about Thermenregion?
Close to the capital of Vienna, region benefits from warm air coming from the Pannonian plain, so black grapes can ripen consistently. No DAC.
Many reds are made from Pinot Noir or Sankt Laurent. SL wine has medium- body, medium tannins and red cherry flavours. Wines are often matured in oak to give spice flavours.
Most planted white grape is Neuburger, a local variety with subtle spicy and floral aromas. Wines from Rotgipfler (full-bodied with peach flavours), Zierfandler (aromatic with notes of peach, honey and spice) or a blend of the two is a local specialty.
Austria: What can you tell in general about Burgenland?
Flattest and warmest area with warm air from the Pannonian plain. Black grape varieties make up 55% of plantings with mainly Blaufränkisch and Zweigelt. Styles of wine range from easy drinking and fruity to full bodied and intense with new oak. GV and Welschriesling are the most planted whites. For GV it is too warm, but Welschriesling plays a role in botrytised wines.
Austria: What can you tell about Neusiedlersee?
Eastern shores of Neusiedlersee, vineyard area is flat, warm and humid. Warmest area in Austria. In autumn the fog forms over night and covers surrounding vineyard areas leading to botrytis. Welschriesling is used for this. Away from the lake black varieties are found, mainly Zweigelt.
TBA are made from Welschriesling, wines are very sweet with balancing high levels of acidity, noble rot aromas of marmelade and no oak.
Dry red wines are Zweigelt or blends with Blaufränkisch. DAC is for red wines and must be Zweigelt. The wines have flavours of red cherry, with no or little oak, medium acidity and medium to full body. The reserve wines must be minimum 60% Zweigelt and can be blended with Blaufränkisch, Pinot Noir or Sankt Laurent and are typically aged in oak.
Significant producers are Krutzler for red wine and Alois Kracher for TBA.
Austria: What can you tell about Leithaberg?
West of Neusiedlersee. In the town of Rust, Ausbruch is produced. Further away from the lake humidity is less and black grapes are planted, 20% Blaufrankisch. The Leithaberg hills provide much needed diurnal range.
DAC can be red and white. Red DAC requires 85% Blaufränkisch and the wines must be aged in oak. Acidity levels range from medium+ to high with body from medium+ to full.
Dry white DAC are made and can be blends or single variety from Weissburgunder, Chardonnay, GV or Neuburger. Levels of acidity are medium to high and body is medium- to medium+.
Austria: What can you tell about Mittelburgenland?
South of the Leithaberg with warm influence from Pannonian plain and Blaufränkisch can easily ripen. It accounts for more than half of plantings. There are 3 DAC styles which all have min 85% BF:
- DAC: aged in stainless steel or large oak
- DAC + vineyard designation: slightly higher min alcohol and typically aged in large oak or barriques
- DAC Reserve: slightly higher min alcohol, longer min time maturing and typically aged in large oak or barriques. These wines tend to be full bodied with pronounced aromas
Austria: What can you tell about Steiermark?
Also known as Styria. Many vineyards are situated on steep hills and have terraced. Cold winters mean that winter freeze may be an issue and also spring frosts and hail. Netting is often used.
Region is known for crisp, dry, white wines. Most planted varieties are Welschriesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Weissburgunder. Most wines have high levels of acidity (high diurnal range). DAC is installed in the subregions: Vulkanland Steiermark DAC Südsteiermark DAC and Weststeiermark DAC. Range of varieties is allowed for regional wines (Gebietsweine), whereas local specialities must be the focus of the village (Ortsweine) and single-vineyard wines (Riedenweine)
Austria: What can you tell about Wien?
Around the city of Vienna. Most wines are made to be consumed immediately in informal local premises that sell newly made wines from the current harvest.
DAC is a white wine called Wiener Gemischter Satz and must be a blend of which are 20 varieties permitted. It must be dry and unoaked. DAC wines can be labelled with an indication of vineyard site and these wines do not need to taste dry. Most wines are medium+ to high in acid with light bodies.
Austria: What can you tell about wine business?
4000 wine estates. More than half is sold in hospitality sector with Heurigen (this year) playing an important role in domestic sales.
Export is 20% mainly to Germany (by volume and value), Switzerland and USA (by volume)
Tokaj: What can you tell in general about the region?
Tokaj is the place, Tokaji is the wine. The famous Aszú (sweet wines made from shirvelled and botrytis-affected grapes) was first mentioned in 1571. In the communist regime, a lot of vineyards remained in private hands in Hungary so when communism ended in 1989, producers started rebuilding their reputation rather quickly. Foreign investors such as AXA, Vega Sicilia and Hugh Johnson helped evolving the winemaking with a return to fresher and fruitier style of Aszú.
Tokaj: What can you tell about the climate?
The region is in the north-eastern corner of Hungary and extends from the town of Tokaj into the foothills of the Zemplén Mountains towards the Slovakian border. It has a moderate, continental climate. It is sheltered by forested mountain peaks from the worst of the cold northerly winds.
Vineyards are on slopes at 48-49 latitude with a south, south-west aspect. Rainfall is 500-600mm. Irrigation is not permitted. Autumns are warm and dry and 2 major rivers (Tisza and Bodrog) meet in the town of Tokaj. The Bodrog floods regularly creating marshes and water meadows increasing moist air and fog.
Tokaj: What can you tell about the soil types?
Deep volcanic bedrock that is overlaid by a complex variety of soils, most significant of which are nyirok (volcanic soil said to produce the most powerful wines) and loess (sandy silt with high clay content producing lighter more delicate wines).
Soft volcanic soils mean that vines can root deeply and cellars can be dug out. The cellars are famous for grey-black cushiony growths of the cellar fungus Zasmidium cellare, it helps regulate humidity
Tokaj: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Traditionally vines were grown on single posts at high density. Nowadays the vines are trellised using replacement cane pruning or cordon training with VSP at lower density to allow mechanisation. However, hand harvesting is often used because of steep slopes and careful selection of Aszú berries.
Main disease concerns are powdery mildew and grey rot, this can be handled with by canopy management.
Pests are wild boar and birds.
Because the berries are shrivelled, yields are small (2 to 3). To ensure quality, yields for dry wines are also kept low (30-40)
Tokaj: What are the permitted grape varieties?
There are 6 permitted, the 3 most important being:
- Furmint
- Hárslevelű
- Sárga Muskotály (Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains)
Tokaj: What can you tell about Furmint?
69% of all plantings, very versatile variety, capable of producing high quality wines from dry to sweet. Late-ripening, but when fully ripe retaining high levels of acidity. Although it has a thick skin, it is prone to botrytis.
Dry wines are produced in a range of styles, due to high sugar levels they can be full-bodied with high levels of alcohol. With the use of viticultural practices it is possible to get wines that are ripe and at medium alcohol.
Typical flavours include lemon, apple and pear, it can develop honey and nuts with age. Botrytis will give dried apricot and mango.
Tokaj: What can you tell about Hárslevelű?
18% of plantings. Wines are fruitier than Furmint with distinctive aromas of white peach and orange blossom. It often has a supporting role in blends adding perfume. It can also be made as a varietal wine, both dry and sweet.
Tokaj: What can you tell about Sárga Muskotály?
9% of plantings. It adds floral notes in blends in both sweet and dry wines, but also appears as a varietal wine mainly dry but occasionally sweet.
Tokaj: What can you tell about Aszú winemaking?
The shrivelled grapes are so concentrated they cannot be pressed normally, they are macerated in must, fermenting must or base wine (min 12,08%). Classic Aszú is deep amber in colour, high in acidity, low to medium alcohol and intense aromas of orange peel, apricots and honey. Prior to maceration, grapes are mashed into a paste, maceration takes about 12-60 hours at 12-15C, but may rise to 16-20C with strongly fermenting must.
Maceration in must gives the lightest style, maceration in fermenting must gives the strongest extraction and most complex wine. Risk is extraction of bitter, unripe characteristics. Timing of maceration affects style of wine: strongest extraction occurs when the must is fermenting most actively early on. With use of must or finished wine, the whole is pressed and then fermented with cultured yeasts.
Ageing is in Hungarian oak (136L: gönci) for at least 18 months. Now larger casks and a mix of old and new oak.
Tokaj: What can you tell about the classification of sweetness levels for Aszú?
Until 2013 Aszú was classified using the puttonyos scale, it was measured by set minimum residual sugar levels with 3 puttonyos having the least RS and 6 puttonyos denoting the most.
Now, minimum RS is 120g/L (5 puttonyos). Wines with lower RS are labeled late harvest or Tokoji Édes Szamorodni. Aszú can be labelled 5 or 6 (>150g/L) puttonyos, but it is not mandatory.
Tokaj: What can you tell about winemaking for Eszencia?
Extremely rare. Made from syrupy free-run juice that trickles from Aszú berries. It can take years to ferment due to high sugar levels and only reaches about 5%. Minimum RS is 450 g/L and the wines are full-bodied with pronounced highly concentrated flavours. High in acidity these wines can age long.
Tokaj: What can you tell about winemaking for Late Harvest?
Similar to other regions, the maceration process in not used. These wines are made with a lower proportion of botrytized grapes. These wines then to be lighter bodied, less concentrated. Legal min RS is 45, most wines are 90-110. Oak ageing is not compulsory and often not used as producers aim for fruit characteristics.
Tokaj: What can you tell about winemaking for Szamorodni?
Meaning: as it comes. Whole bunches with varying amounts of healthy and botrytized grapes. Can be produced in a sweet (édes) style or dry (száraz). Sweeter style is more common, min RS is 45, most wines have 90-110. Oak ageing for 6 months, bottled in traditional 500mL Tokaj bottle. Quality can be similar to Aszú.
Dry Szamorodni is aged under a thin film of flor yeast for up to 10 years without topping up. The wine is protected from excessive oxidation and it develops nutty and green apple aromas.
Tokaj: What can you tell about winemaking for dry wines?
At first, dry wines were a by product.
Good dry wines need healthy grapes with no botrytis so producers plant vineyards on higher and windier sites above the fog zone and use more open canopies to prevent rot. Berries that are used are less ripe, fermentation is in stainless steel and generally taking a less interventionist approach it means lighter bodied wine that better shows varietal character. Also single vineyard wines are made (Dűlő).
Wines are often made from Furmint but Hárlevelű, Muscat and Kabar are also used and blends are made.
Under PDO single varietal wine must contain 85% of specified grape
Tokaj: What can you tell about wine law and regulation?
Hungary adopted the PDO/PGI system, Tokaji PDO is broken down into more specific categories of village and estate wines. Various styles of wine are defined by law. There is a PGI (Zempléni) which is used for wines made from other grapes (international varieties) and for inexpensive wines produced at higher (PDO-permitted) yields.
Tokaj: What can you tell about wine business?
A lot of small growers have contracts with larger producers, like state-owned Grand Tokaj sources from 2000 growers. Aszú accounts for 10% of production and dry wines for 21%. A lot of inexpensive non-botrytized wine is made for home market or eastern european countries. Export is 40% with Eastern Europe being largest, the China, France, UK and USA
Greece: What can you tell about the history?
Wine was an integral part of every day life and a central feature of the symposium, that brought together art, philosophy, food and wine. Golden age was 500-300 BCE, wine laws were in place to protect wines, prevent fraude and raise taxes. Substances were aided to protect wine from oxidation, most important pine resin (retsina).
Modern Greek state was established in 1830, Ottomans, 2 Balkan wars and two world wars destroyed greece’s agricultural land. Next there was phylloxera. In the 20th century Greece was a source of cheap and poorly made wine produced by co-operatives. From 1980 on, small quality minded producers rose. Financial crisis of 2008 led domestically consumed wines to be sold on the export market.
Greece: What can you tell about the climate?
Latitude between 34-42. Generally Mediterranean with long hot summers and short mild winters. Inland, the climate turns continental, spring frost can be a problem in northern Greece.
The land is very mountainous, altitude helps to cool. Some places (Amyndeon, Mantinia) can even be so cool that grapes can struggle to ripen. Flatter areas are plains of eastern Macedonia and central Greece.
Vineyards are common on the islands. Where strong onshore winds can pose a threat (stopping photosynthesis, interrupt flowering and berry set, delay ripening). Rainfall varies, Santorini is very dry, but on average it is 400-700. Water stress is common and irrigation is necessary.
Greece: What can you tell about the soils?
Wide range of soils from limestone to volcanic. Apart from the fertile plains, soils tend to be low in fertility. Fertile land was preserved lucrative soils meaning olive and vines were planted on less fertile land, meaning yields are low, but can be ideal for production of high-quality wines.
Greece: What can you tell about vineyard management?
Vineyards are small and many growers sell to larger producers or co-operatives or produce small and sell locally. Hot dry conditions mean that many farm organically or biodynamically.
Many vineyards are trellised, cordon training with VSP. In Santorini a special trellising and pruning system is used to cope with high winds and very low rainfall. Irrigation is permitted, drip-irrigation is always used.
Greece: What can you tell about the grape varieties grown in Greece?
In Greece there is a large number (300) of indigenous varieties, they account for 90% of plantings. Alot of international varieties were blended with indigenous varieties. Chardonnay, SB, CS, Merlot, Syrah. White wines make up 70% of production SB with Assyrtiko and Merlot with Xinomavro were successful blends. - Savatioano (w) - Roditis (w) - Agiorgitiko (r) - Xinomavro (r) - Assyrtiko (w) - CS - Merlot - Syrah - Moschofilero (w)
Greece: What can you tell about Savatiano?
Most planted, workhorse grape due to drought resistance. Used to produce large volumes of inexpensive wines, main ingredient of Retsina. When low-yielded, dry farmed bush vines are used it can raise its quality. Wines have subtle aromas of citrus, pear and stone fruit as well as a nutty character with age.
Greece: What can you tell about Roditis?
It is pink skinned. It is able to produce high yields and is a blending ingredient for Retsina. At altitude and with old vines quality can raise in Peloponnese. Then, the wine is medium bodied with high acidity and flavours of ripe fruit such as melon.
Greece: What can you tell about Assyrtiko?
Best known. Originally from Santorini but now planted on mainland and is highly adaptable to different conditions. It retains high levels of acidity, even when ripe. The acidity balances the high alcohol and it makes Assyrtiko ideal for producing lusciously sweet wines such as Vinsanto from Santorini. Dry wines typically have citrus, stone and tropical fruit often with a strong smoky or flint characteristic.
Greece: What can you tell about Moschofilero?
Moschofilero produces aromatic wines with notes of citrus, flowers (particularly rose petals) and spices, not dissimilar to muscat. Wines are high in acid, light-bodied and relatively low in alcohol (~12%). Grape is pink skinned so wines can have a pink tinge. Rose is made by extended skin contact. Mainly planted in Mantinia in the Peloponnese
Greece: What can you tell about Malagousia?
Plantings are small, was almost extinct. It has established a reputation for producing high quality wines. Wines have medium acidity, medium body with complex and intense aromas of stone fruit and flowers. Grapes grown in cooler sites or picked early can have a herbal or herbaceous note.
Greece: What can you tell about Agiorgitiko?
Most planted black variety. Versatile grape that can produce a wide range of wines from a lighter fruity style for early drinking to a more complex, full-bodied age worthy style as well as high quality rosés and even sweet wines. Reds are deeply coloured with medium acidity, medium to high levels of soft tannins and medium alcohol.
It typically has aromas of ripe red fruit (jammy if over ripe) and sweet spices. Often aged in oak with a proportion of new oak. Mainly found in the Peloponnese and is particularly highly regarded from PDO Nemea
Greece: What can you tell about Xinomavro?
Most prized black variety. Famous wines come from Naoussa in northern Macedonia. Often likened to Nebbiolo: in their youth, the wines can have unpleasantly high levels of acidity and grippy tannins with aromas that are more vegetal than fruity. The wines are pale-coloured and turn garnet rapidly. It can benefit from long bottle ageing. Beste wines, produced from lower-yielding vines and aged in oak, can age for decades. Developing highly complex aromas of flowers, herbs , spices, leather and earthiness.
With the use of riper grapes and less extraction some wines can be much fruitier and accessible in youth. They have lower acidity and are often aged in new oak.
Greece: What can you tell about winemaking?
Traditionally grapes were crushed by foot and then fermented in old casks which were then simply stopped up and the wine left to mature for a few months. Nowadays everyone uses modern presses, temperature control and stainless steel. Now also more restrained oak characteristics. Producers try to use some traditional practices such as naturally occurring yeast, shorter extraction and maturation in amphorae.
Sweet wines are often made from sun-dried grapes.
Greece: What can you tell about winemaking of Retsina?
Pine resin was used to seal amphorae and then used as an additive for flavouring purposes. Resin was after WW2 used to mask poor quality or faulty wines.
Retsina is made from a number of varieties, Savatiano and Roditis are often used, it comes from the hot central plains. Resin is usually added to the must and the wine is then left on its lees for no more than a week after fermentation both leading to a more subtle integrated pine resin character.
Retsina is a legally protected category with regulations. It does not comply with the standard EU definition of wine as it is not made exclusively from grapes, but is has been granted special status as a ‘wine of appellation by tradition’.
Greece: What can you tell about wine law and regulations?
PDO=POP: Prostatevmeni Onomasia Proelefsis, there are 33, accounting for 20% of production. Rules about grape growing, winemaking, ageing requirements
PGI=PGE: Prostatevmeni Geografiki Endiksi, there are 120, accounting for 62% of production. less strict rules, use of international varieties
Wines from Greece, 18% of production. High volume brands
OKP: traditional products: Retsina
Greece: What can you tell about Macedonia in general?
Mountains in the north and west, plains in the east.
In the mountains, climate is continental, due to altitude, temperature is relatively cool. Rainfall throughout the year 650-700mm, water supply is less of an issue. Naoussa and Amynteo are in the mountains.
On the plains, climate is warm and Mediterranean. It is drier due to rain shadows of the mountains. PGI Drama and Kavala produce very good quality wines.
The region is traditionally red wine. PDOs Naoussa and Amynteo produce only 100% Xinomavro. Drama Valley has a strong reputation for modern style Bordeaux blends. Also some white wines: Chardonnay and SB at altitude and full-bodied ripe wines from Assyrtiko and Malagousia in Drama and Kavala
Greece: What can you tell about Naoussa?
South-eastern slopes of Mount Vermio (150-400m). Best sites are sheltered from the strong cold winds. Wines must be 100% Xinomavro, high acidity and tannins, great complexity of aromas and potential to age for decades. Significant producers include Thymiopoulos Vineyards and Kir-Yianni.
Traditionally ageing in casks leading to spicy and meaty aromas. Now, using riper fruit and either cold soaking or whole bunch fermentation to produce a deeper coloured but less tannic wine.
Mixture of soils and microclimates. Outside the PDO rosés and red blends of Xinomavro with Merlot are being produced.
Greece: What can you tell about Amynteo?
Amynteo is on the opposite north-western side of Mount Vermio (570-750m). Vineyards are exposed to cold northerly winds leading to cool summers and cold winters. There are a lot of lakes mitigating the cool temperatures. But also rises humidity increasing risk of rot. Soil is more fertile.
Again 100% Xinomavro, rosé is permitted. The wine is lighter in body and lower in tannins with the best having a distinctive floral quality. There are areas with sandy soils that haven’t been affected by phylloxera with old vines with a lot of concentration. Significant producer is Alpha Estate.
Greece: What can you tell about Peloponnese in general?
Peninsula in the southern part of Greece, largest vineyard plantings. Many vineyards are planted with grapes for drying. Very mountainous region with mainly poor rocky soils. Temperatures are moderated by altitude. Plain around Patra are hotter and the soil is more fertile. Apart from Nemea, the region is dominated by white grapes, Moschofilero and Roditis.
Greece: What can you tell about Nemea?
Close to the Corinth Canal, only for red wines 100% Agiorgitiko. Both dry and sweet are permitted, but the latter is rare. New style is semi-carbonic maceration to enhance fruity flavours and keep tannin levels relatively low. Significant producers are Gaia Wines and Tselepos.
Climate is Mediterranean, rain is 400-900.
Nemea is divided into 3 zones by reference to altitude.
1. 230-400m: hottest, most fertile soil. Inexpensive wines or high quality sweet wines
2. 450-650m: Best for quality wines, poor free-draining soils. Zone is not homogeneous, range of microclimates.
3. 650-1000m: Agiorgitiko can struggle to ripen in the cooler temperatures and cool clay soils. Fresh red fruit flavours, high acidity and potentially harsh tannins have meant that grapes are used for rosé.
Greece: What can you tell about Mantinia?
South and west of Nemeo, it occupies a plateau with elevations starting at 600m. Coolest grape growing areas in Greece due to altitude. Longest growing season. White wines only, Moschofilero must make up at least 85% of the blend. Wines have high acidity, low to medium alcohol, medium- to medium body, floral and slightly spicy aromas. Significant producers are Boutari and Seméli Estate.
Greece: What can you tell about the islands in general?
Aegian is known for its strong winds and many of the islands have very low rainfall and rocky soils with poor water retention. Most famous island is Santorini, in the Cyclades island group in the southern part of the Aegian. Others include Paros (Cyclades; still and sweet), Tinos (Cyclades); Samos and Lemnos (northern Aegian; sweet Muscats); Crete
Greece: What can you tell about Santorini?
Dry and sweet PDO wines made primarily from Assyrtiko. Island is on a volcano. Winds are strong, to provide shelter vines are trained low to the ground in a basket shape, requires 4x the labour. Very little rainfall. Fog comes from the caldera crater. Vine density is very low. Vines are very old, 400 years. Volcanic soil is very infertile and with low rainfall contributes to low vigour and low yield. Max yield is 60, in practice 15. PDO is for white only. Dry must contain 75% Assyrtiko, sweet 51%.
Dry wines have high acidity, medium to high alcohol and distinctive smoky characteristic alongside fruit aromas. Development gives honey, toasty character.
Sweet wine, Vinsanto, made from late-harvest grapes which are dried in the sun for up to two weeks. Must be aged for 2 years in oak in casks with ullage to encourage oxidation. Flavours of raisin, coffee and chocolate. RS is 200-300. Significant producers include Estate Argyros and Domaine Sigalas.
Greece: What can you tell about wine business?
7000 growers which often sell to large producers, for example Greek Wine Cellars and Boutaris Group. Greek government tried to revive wine industry by establishing a number of co-ops. Only a few had quality in mind. 13% export to Germany, Scandinavia and Benelux. USA and Canada have emerged as leading markets for higher quality wines as have Australia and UK. Promotional body is Wines of Greece.
Domestic market is most significant.
Italy: What can you tell about the history of Italy in general?
History of winemaking goes back to 8th century BCE. A lot of wines were consumed domestically and also exported to France and Spain. With after the Roman Empire 5th century CE, Genoa and Venice becoming trading centres. Families such as Antorini and Frescobaldi making money in banking and investing in land and wine production. Botanist Andrea Bacci wrote about Italian grape varieties.
In 19th and 20th century styles we know today were established. Unification of Italy in 1861 and economic boom after WWII, lead to high yields and volume production. Focus became on export. With innovations such as stainless steel and temperature control had a big impact on Whites in Friuli in 1960, also Super Tuscans in 1970 raised ambition in whole Italy.
Nowadays emphasis on quality wines from abundance of local varieties alongside great commercial success of Pinot Grigio and Prosecco.
Italy: What can you tell in general about the climate?
Latitude 35-47. Apennines running down most of the country providing a wide range of sites. Many regions are influenced by the sea, but some inland areas have a continental climate. In general, many regions have a warm Mediterranean climate.
Italy: What can you tell in general about vineyard management?
After WWII there was a complete change from traditional grape growing to modern specialised vineyards with vines on trellises. Pergola was common for high volume production areas in the north, mixed planting was common in Tuscany and bush vines were common in the south.
Pergola is sometimes used in sunny areas where shadow is helpful and bush vines are used in dry areas.
Italy: What can you tell in general about the grape varieties?
There are 375-500 local varieties, much are strongly associated with a region.
- sangiovese
- pinot grigio
- trebbiano
- glera
- montepulciano
- catarratto
- merlot
- chardonnay
- primitivo
- barbera
Italy: What can you tell in general about winemaking?
Influences in white wine making from Germany and red winemaking from France. Traditionally red wines were matured in large oak casks (1000-5000L) often made from Slavonian oak and used for many years. Now, most wines from Italian varieties no longer have pronounced new oak flavour.
