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D3 Study Flashcards

1
Q

Mantinia

A

85% Moschofilero, SW of Nemea on 600 m plateau - warm Mediterranean stainless steel, Seméli Estate

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2
Q

Nemea

A

100% Agiorgitiko, near Corinth Canal, Gaia Wines
Three zones: 230-400 m fertile, 450-650 m for best, 650m-1000m for rosé

Ancient Nemea+Koutsi subzones

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3
Q

Naoussa

A

100% Xinomavro, SE slopes of Mt. Vermio 150-400m - shelter from NW wind, varied aspects - Kir Yianni Ramnitsa
Good-outstanding, mid-priced

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4
Q

Amynteo

A

100% Xinomavro, NW side of Mt. Vermio, 570-750 m
Rosé permitted, lakes moderate temp (Vegoritida) and sandy soils are phylloxera-free
Alpha Estate Barba Yannis
650-700mm rain

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5
Q

Santorini

A

Dry 75% Assyrtiko, sweet 51% Assyrtiko: basket (kouloura) training, cut every 20 years - 2,500 vines/ha, yields 60 hl/ha - Vinsanto late harvest, 2 weeks sun-dried, 2 years in oak

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6
Q

Beaujolais Nouveau

A

Primeur = synonym, third Thursday in November (other wines December 15th), carbonic or semi, bottled 3-5 days after - MLF optional

1/4 of all Beaujolais

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7
Q

Beaujolais AOC

A

Regional (S+NE), clay+limestone 60 hl/ha, sale March after harvest

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8
Q

Beaujolais Villages AOC

A

Riper, yield 58 hl/ha
Individual village name allowed if fruit all from there
Good-very good, inexpensive to mid-priced

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9
Q

Beaujolais Cru

A

Range from 250-1,300 ha, yield 48 hl/ha - popular among somms/wine lovers in US

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10
Q

Brouilly AOC

A

Southern, warmer, largest: lighter and perfumed

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11
Q

Chiroubles AOC

A

Highest cru, lighter and fragrant, marked acidity

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12
Q

Fleurie AOC

A

Sandy soils (lighter) in south, clay in north (fuller bodied) next to Moulin-à-Vent

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13
Q

Moulin-à-Vent AOC

A

Powerful and long-lived, like Cote d’Or

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14
Q

Morgon AOC

A

Includes south facing Cote de Py, pronounced black cherry, age for a decade (Jean Foillard)

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15
Q

Beaujolais Business

A

40% export, holdings 10 ha, co-ops 25%, domestic sales DTC and specialist wine (then supermarket) - Japan, US and UK make up 60% of sales (Japan for Nouveau, US+UK for crus) - alternative to Burgundy

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16
Q

Rhone Business

A

1/3 export, 1/3 supermarket, 29% specialist wine/hospitality - US, UK and Belgium - trend of growers becoming domaines, Cave de Tain has 40% of Crozes-Hermitage and 15% of Hermitage - 70% AOC wine overall, of which 1/2 Côtes du Rhone

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17
Q

Burgundy Business

A

Route to market: DTC rising, direct sales from producer to end retailer rising - 50% export (25% EU, 25% UK/US/Japan), domaine and appellation name - 200% price increase this century

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18
Q

USA Labelling Laws

A 
Variety = 75%
Appellation = 75% from county, state
Vintage = 85% from vintage
AVA = 85% from AVA
Vintage AVA = 95%
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19
Q

California Business

A

5,900 grape growers, 4,800 wineries
26 million hl (3.3 million hl exported)
Bought grapes could be blended or make separate wine - large range helps for cellar door/wine club
Gallo owns Barefoot, other end is Screaming Eagle/Harlan
Wine Institute of California: 1/4 of producers

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20
Q

California grape growers

A

Independent growers i.e. Beckstoffer
Prices vary w/supply and demand -> head-grafting for rapid response
Napa fruit can be 10x Lodi: quality growers

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21
Q

North Coast AVA

A

Largest in California, 100 miles on coast and 50 miles inland - divided by Mayacamas Mountains

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22
Q

Mendocino County

A

7,000 ha - cooler AVAs (Anderson Valley) near Pacific for Pinot/Chardonnay/Riesling, inland (Redwood Valley) for Zinfandel, Syrah, Petite Sirah, Potter Valley for Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling - lower priced, multi-regional blends
Parducci in Mendocino AVA

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23
Q

Anderson Valley AVA

A

NW to SE, close to Pacific: fog from Navarro River, warmer inland - 900-2,000 mm rain
1,000 ha: Pinot Noir and Chardonnay for sparkling/still
Duckhorn’s Goldeneye, Williams Seylem
good to outstanding, premium-priced
Also Alsace whites
85 wineries: cellar door for tourism, many wineries buy fruit and label it from here b/c of reputation

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24
Q

Clear Lake AVA

A

Rain shadow of Mayacamas Mountains: warm, slopes at 400-500m and afternoon breezes
Red Hills AVA Beckstoffer fruit
Mostly black grapes, Cabernet Sauvignon+Sauvignon Blanc

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25
Q

Alexander Valley AVA

A

NE Sonoma County, warm w/cool Pacific air from Petaluma Gap and russian River Valley
Valley floor and west/southwest Mayacamas slopes, 100-750m
Long sunshine hours: high color and tannin w/acidity
800 mm rain, free-draining sand and gravel higher up
Full-bodied Cabernet Sauvignon, good to outstanding + mid-priced to premium
Kendall-Jackson Stonestreet Estate Chardonnay (450m)

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26
Q

Knights Valley AVA

A

Furthest island, surrounded by hills and sheltered from pacific - cooling at 450 m
Free-draining volcanic soils: Cabernet Sauvignon w/Merlot, Syrah, Zinfandel, Peter Michael

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27
Q

Dry Creek Valley AVA

A

Narrow valley, planted on floor and slopes
Dry Creek = tributary of Russian River, valley funnels cool air and fog from San Pablo Bay (tidal estuary)
Gravel sandy loam on floor, gravel red clay loam on slopes (Dry Creek Conglomerate)
Old-vine Zinfandel, Teldeschi clone (Italian immigrants) riper on west-facing/north sites
Bordeaux and Rhone varieties, Sauvignon
Dry Creek Vineyard

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28
Q

Rockpile AVA

A

Overlaps Dry Creek AVA, steep slopes above 800 ft, up to 650 m
Snaking Lake Sonoma creates inversion layer, shallow soils + wind for ripe fruit
Zinfandel, Petite Sirah, Syrah, Malbec, Douro
No wineries in AVA (source of fruit)

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29
Q

Russian River Valley AVA

A

Part of Northern Sonoma and Sonoma County AVAs
South and west coolest = Petaluma Gap (fog stays the night, slower sugar accumulation+acidity retention)
Yellow sandstone, rocky sandy loam: free-draining, low nutrients (Goldridge soil)
Over 7,000 ha (extended twice), medium(+) acidity
La Crema, Martinelli’s Jackass Hill Zinfandel

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30
Q

Green Valley of Russian River Valley AVA

A

Next to Petaluma Gap, longest fog exposure
Higher acidity, fresher fruit
Marimar Estate legume cover (water), 100% solar powered

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31
Q

Chalk Hill AVA

A

White volcanic ash, NE corner - plantings up to 500 m
Warmer climate, Chardonnay+Cabernet Sauvignon
Chalk Hill Vineyards, oak fermented vinho ao alto
Mt. Eden clone Pinot Noir

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32
Q

Sonoma Coast AVA

A

Mendocino to San Pablo Bay, includes Petaluma Gap
West vineyards near coast are very cold, fruit set disrupted
Light-bodied, high acid wines
Occidental Vineyards

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33
Q

Fort Ross Seaview AVA

A

NW of Sonoma Coast AVA, vineyards more than 280 m (above fog layer), warmer but moderated y winds
Riper fruit w/higher acidity
Chardonnay, Pinot Noir + Syrah
Flowers

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34
Q

Petaluma Gap AVA

A

Gap in Northern Coast Range - persistent 8 mph wind, 75% Pinot Noir + Chardonnay, Syrah
Lower alcohol and fresher fruit

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35
Q

Sonoma Valley AVA

A

Between Sonoma and Mayacamas mountains - south is coolest (winds from San Pablo Bay)
Hanzell first to use all oak w/Chardonnay
Pagani Ranch Zinfandel (Ridge)

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36
Q

Sonoma Mountain AVA

A

Western side, east-facing slopes up to 730 m
Ripe and tannic, but cool mountain air helps
Free-draining volcanic soils
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Zinfandel w/Chardonnay/Sauvignon Blanc on cooler west side (coastal)
Benziger is biodynamic

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37
Q

Bennett Valley AVA

A

Warm sheltered, surrounding hills but night air through Crane Canyon Gap
Matanzas Creek, Syrah, Merlot, Rhone varieties

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38
Q

Carneros AVA

A

San Pablo Bay up to Napa county: warm and sunny days, cold winds evening and morning - low elevation up to 200 m
Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, can use county and ‘Los’
Recognized in 1980s (Tchelitscheff)
Clay-loam soils, less fertile than Napa
Martini and Swan clones of Pinot Noir

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39
Q

Napa Valley AVA

A

4% of California production, 27% of value - 16 nested AVAs must also use Napa Valley - 18,200 ha
30x5 miles - Napa River, Mayacamas Mountains and Vaca Mountains - open to San Pablo Bay from south, warm air rising pulls in cool air
Silt and clay in middle and east (fertile and water)
Alluvial fans are deep, rocky, moderately fertile (in-between style)
90% protected development, 30 degree slope cannot be converted
Cordon/replacement spur VSP, drip irrigation
Napa Green = 60%

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40
Q

Coombsville and Oak Knoll AVA

A

Fog burns off in late morning: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot+Chardonnay - lighter body and fresher fruit

Coombsville 2012, Oak Knoll Trefethen 100% solar powered, dry and late harvest Riesling, Petit Verdot

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41
Q

Rutherford AVA

A

Furthest north, least bay influence: Cabernet, some Zinfandel - med(+)/full body, high ripe tannins, rounder and fruitier
Rutherford Bench 3-mile stretch alluvial fan
Grgich Hills organic, silt loams (neutral oak Fumé Blanc), Frog’s Leap

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42
Q

Oakville AVA

A

Cabernet Sauvignon, Rutherford Bench

Promontory, Harlan higher, Bale loam at lower altitude

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43
Q

Yountville AVA

A

Most influence of fog

Dominus Napanook Bordeaux blend

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44
Q

Stags Leap District AVA

A

Deep volcanic loam, Fay Vineyard drainage from large boulders - silky and more delicate

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45
Q

St Helena AVA

A

North, warmest - Bale loam, St. Helena Bench
horseshoe shape funnels afternoon breezes
Trinchero Family Estates

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46
Q

Calistoga AVA

A

Some breezes from Chalk Hill gap
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah
Wind machines, Chateau Montelena

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47
Q

Mountain AVAs of Napa Valley

A

Above fog layer (up to 800 m), lower diurnal range: higher tannins and acidity
Mount Veeder AVA is coolest (Cab can struggle) w/ Hess Collection, Atlas Peak in SE has Antica Sangiovese, Howell Mountain in NE is warmest, Diamond Mountain and Spring Mountain (Pride Mountain Vineyards) cooler
White wines have less pronounced fruit

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48
Q

Blending Napa Valley

A

Small percent of other variety in varietal wines, also different vineyards (even across AVAs) for soil types, cooler - single-vineyard To Kalon and Martha’s Vineyard

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49
Q

Central Coast AVA

A

From San Francisco to Santa Barbara - gaps in coastal hills - Southern Coast Ranges i.e. Santa Cruz, Gabilan and Santa Lucia

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50
Q

Livermore Valley AVA

A 
East side of San Francisco Bay, Alameda County: cool air from san Francisco Bay, stony free-draining soils
Wente Chardonnay (Meursault), Concannon Cabernet Sauvignon (7, 8, 11) Margaux -80% relate back to this, Sauvignon Blanc from Chateau d'Yquem
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51
Q

Santa Cruz Mountains AVA

A

Altitudes up to 800 m, moderating daytime temps, warm air pushed up avoiding frosts
East side warmer for Zinfandel, Cabernet Sauvignon, but Pinot Noir and Chardonnay common
Ridge Vineyards 100% new oak, organic

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52
Q

Monterey AVA

A

Salinas River Valley: cool air funneled from Monterey Bay - Pinot Noir and Riesling in north, Cabernet, Merlot, Syrah in south
Chardonnay has more than 50%, all sites
Free-draining sandy loam/gravel = irrigation essential
Flat valley floor = inexpensive, mechanization
Longest growing season, wind damage

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53
Q

Santa Lucia Highlands

A

Alluvial terraces facing southeast over Salinas Valley, up to 350m: winds and fog, morning sunshine - stomata can close - Chardonnay + Pinot Noir, Syrah where sheltered
Hahn Pinot Noir/Chardonnay

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54
Q

Arroyo Seco AVA

A

Narrow gorge at foot of Santa Lucia mountains, opens onto valley floor: canyon is warmer, Cab Sauvignon/Syrah, valley floor has Chardonnay and Riesling J Lohr

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55
Q

Chalone AVA

A

Gabilan Mountain Range, 550 m above fog line, monopole - Chardonnay and Pinot, Chenin Blanc

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56
Q

Carmel Valley AVA

A

Cachagua Valley further inland, 670 m and above fog - sheltered from coast, warmest in county
Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot w/Pinot Noir/Chardonnay near coast

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57
Q

Paso Robles AVA

A

11 sub-AVAs (Willow Creek), Adelaida District AVA
Rolling hills and mountaings up to 670 m - eastern side has warmer climate, full bodied
Templeton Gap on west has Pacific air
Tablas Creek (Perrin) Rhone varieties, Adelaida (calcareous) - dry farming
40% Cabernet

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58
Q

Edna Valley AVA

A

Coolest in California, 5 miles from Pacific (Morro Bay), C+PN as well as Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Albariño
Alban Reva

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59
Q

Arroyo Grande Valley AVA

A

South of Edna valley, funnels Pacific fog (high acidity)

Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, Zinfandel and Syrah

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60
Q

Santa Barbara County

A

Transerve Ranges funnel air, reduce frost - medium(+)/high acidity, medium to medium(+) body
Wineries cannot set up cellar doors on winery, must be in city
Marine bedrock, diatomaceous in west, Purisima Hills

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61
Q

Santa Maria Valley AVA

A

West to east, funnels Pacific air: 100-250 m on sandy clay shale loam - P+CN, Syrah, Viognier

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62
Q

Santa Ynez Valley AVA

A

Four sub-AVAs Sta Rita Hills, Ballard Canyon, Los Olivos District, Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara

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63
Q

Sta. Rita Hills AVA

A

calcareous soils, Purisima Hills+Santa Rosa Hills, western edge: P+CN, Sauvignon Blanc, V+S - known for Pinot Noir, premium + super premium, medium(+) tannins, tea leaf

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64
Q

Ballard Canyon AVA

A

Small plantings, north to south canyon w/some overnight fog: Syrah and Grenache

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65
Q

Los Olivos AVA

A

Alluvial terraces over Santa Ynez River, warm sun and low diurnal range: Bordeaux, Rhone, Italian

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66
Q

Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara AVA

A

Small, new - warm temps, north/south - high altitude and afternoon winds
Cabernet Sauvignon+Sauvignon Blanc, Bordeaux, Syrah

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67
Q

San Joaquin Valley

A

61,000 ha, 35-40 temps, French Colombard, Chardonnay, Muscat, Zinfandel, Merlot: large-scale production, Gallo and Bronco - ‘California’ appellation, not AVA

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68
Q

Lodi AVA

A

Hot Mediterranean, cooling winds from San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta - flat land means breezes travel far
Irrigation common from Mokelumne River, cordon VSP as cane is more labor, old bush vine Zinfandel - Rhone, Bordeaux, Spain, Portugal, Italy
David Michael Inkblot

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69
Q

Mokelumne River AVA

A

Most of Lodi’s vineyards, 2006: Lodi also stated (1/5 of Lodi is sustainable)

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70
Q

Clarksburg AVA

A

SW of Sacramento, hot days, Chenin Blanc and Petit Sirah, California blends

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71
Q

Sierra Foothills AVA

A

Hot days, cool mountain nights - 1000 m in El Dorado AVA, sandy clay loam for dry farming, old vine Zinfandel + Rhone

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72
Q

South Coast AVA

A

South of LA to Mexico - breezes, Pierce’s disease
Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel, Chenin Blanc
Replanting to focus on quality

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73
Q

Oregon Business

A

52% of wines from estate-grown, typically small family wineries of less than 5,000 cases
1/4 of wine is DTC (cellar door, wine clubs)
60% consumed in other states, 2.5% exported (Canada, UK, Japan)

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74
Q

Washington Business

A

Growth to more than 1,000 wineries
more than 23,000 ha (doubled since 2000)
House Bill 100 1969 forced competition
Chateau Ste. Michelle 1976 - more than half of state production
Mostly in-state sales, cellar door often w/facilities in Seattle

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75
Q

New York Business

A

Farm Winery Act 1976: wineries can sell to public (limit 50,000 gallons)
Now 400 wineries, 1.1 million hl
Sales cellar door, in-state: on-trade in NYC has not embraced wines
Second generation, training abroad help industry

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76
Q

Williamette Valley

A

10,000 ha - 600 vineyards
60-80% Pinot Noir
Coast Range mountains on west
Long sunshine hours, high diurnal range
Ponds built for irrigation
Valley floor loam Pinot Gris (Scott Henry Pinot Noir)
Marine sediment (sandstone), basalt and loess higher w/VSP

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77
Q

Dundee Hills AVA

A

First plantings, volcanic Jory N/S hills w/E-W ridges
60-325 m, warmer due to Coast Range and Chehalem Mountain shelter
Iron-rich clay holds water
Eyrie Vineyards

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78
Q

Chehalem Mountains AVA

A

20x5 miles, SE to NW ridge, up to 500 m
Most plantings of any sub AVA
Laurelwood wind-blown silt, draining but fertile

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79
Q

Ribbon Ridge AVA

A

Smallest, 200 m protected ridge

Sedimentary, deep but low nutrient (holds water) - Willakenzie

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80
Q

Van Duzer Corridor

A

SW of Willamette: break in Coast Range, can disrupt flower/fruit set, close stomata
Marine sediment, loam, silt (well-draining, shallow) - frost problems

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81
Q

Eola-Amity Hills AVA

A

Rocky volcanic basalt, sedimentary soil

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82
Q

Yamhill-Carlton District

A

South bowl, horseshoe shaped sedimentary hills
1000 ha, Coast range foothills
Lower acidity, south aspect and shelter

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83
Q

McMinnville AVA

A

Noth areas in rain shadow, south have wind

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84
Q

Umpqua Valley AVA

A 
Three ranges: Coast, Cascade, Klamath
Umpqua River, 50-400m, various soils
Northern area cooled by wind from gorge
North Pinot/Gewurz/Riesling
South Syrah, Merlot
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85
Q

Southern Oregon

A

3,200 ha
Rivers and mountains cooling
Irrigation needed (ranchers can use river waters)
Dry farmed Rhone varieties
40% Pinot Noir - then Gris, Syrah, Tempranillo

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86
Q

Rogue Valley AVA

A

Warmest and driest around Applegate Valley AVA
almost to 950 m, cooling
Rogue River Valley winds
Merlot, Tempranillo, Syrah

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87
Q

Walla Walla valley

A

1/3 in Oregon, arid continental
40% Cabernet
Milton-Freewater Rocks District: basalt stones, silt loam

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88
Q

Washington environment

A 
Rain shadow of Cascades, 150-250mm
Hot continental, longer days
Irrigational essential
Basalt bedrock, sandy loess and alluvial topsoil
Anticlines: exposed bedrock ridges
Sandy soil is low phylloxera, slopes for less frost
Volcanic influence Mt. St. Helens
The Burn (warmest) is new AVA
Snipes Mountain AVA
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89
Q

Yakima Valley AVA

A

40% of production, 7,600 ha
Chardonnay, then Cab Sauvignon
Frost risk on valley floor
Rattlesnake Hills AVA south slopes (260 m) high altitude Riesling, Merlot

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90
Q

Red Mountain AVA

A

SW slope, poor nutrients, warmest (Yakima valley sub-zone)

Full bodied Cab Sauvignon

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91
Q

Horse Heaven Hills AVA

A 
6500 ha: 25% of production
2/3 black grapes
Chardonnay+Riesling
Slopes+Columbia River winds
Quilceda Creek Vintners
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92
Q

Wahluke Slope AVA

A

Center of Columbia Valley AVA
South slope, 3,600 ha warm and dry
Sandy, free-draining soil: irrigation
Red wines

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93
Q

Walla Walla Valley AVA

A 
Fastest growing, 1/2 in Oregon
705 ha in Washington
Blue Mountain foothills in NE, up to 600 m
Cool air trapped: frost risk
Cab Franc, Malbec, Semillon
Vinea sustainable alliance
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94
Q

Finger Lakes AVA

A

Cool continental, 3,800 ha
11 lakes, Seneca Lake 200 m deep
Slopes drain cold air, warms and rises over lake drawing cold air away from land
Snow insulates vines
Autumn warming=long season, budburst delayed in spring
Fertile soil, lots of rainfall
(low density large vine i.e. Scott Henry split canopy)
Hilling up in winter

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95
Q

New York Hybrids

A

Traminette (higher acidity, lower alcohol), Vignoles (noble rot, high acid, sweet), Vidal (ice wine)

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96
Q

Long Island AVA

A

1,000 ha on North Fork and Hamptons
Maritime, long season
Merlot+Bordeaux, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc
Humidity (coastal wind helps)
North Fork (60%) warmer protected, sandy soils
Hamptons silt loam free-draining, low-fertility VSP

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97
Q

Hudson River Region AVA

A

First commercial winery, Brotherhood Winery
64 ha, glacial shale/slate, schist, limestone: frost and freeze
Seyval Blanc, Vidal, Cabernet Franc

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98
Q

Finger Lakes Wineries

A

Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca AVA, Cayuga AVA
Hermann J Wiemer Seneca Lake, hand harvest/sort, cover crops, working towards Demeter
Konstantin Frank Grüner Veltliner, unoaked Chardonnay
Forge Cellars from Gigondas

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99
Q

Muscadet (Pays Nantais) Winemaking

A

Chaptalization up to 12%, fermentation in underground glass-lined concrete
MLF avoided to preserve acidity
Skin contact, amphora, eggs for experimentation (cost)
Sur lie: one racking to remove gross lees, then winter on lees (March 1st to November 30th)

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100
Q

Melon Vineyard

A

Cold resistant but vulnerable to spring frost (wind machines, heaters, straw bales)
Resistant to powdery mildew, subject to downy mildew and botrytis, has tight bunches

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101
Q

Muscadet Appellations

A

Muscadet AOC: 65 hl/ha (70 for 2020), 10% Chardonnay, no sur lie
Muscadet Sevre et Maine AOC: 55 hl/ha
Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire, Muscadet Cotes de Grandlieu
Cru Communaux: Clisson, Gorges, Pallet 45 hl/ha
Pallet 18 months, Clisson+Gorges 24 months sur lie

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102
Q

Muscadet Business

A

Drop since 1991 frost
15% export, negociants more than half of sales (Ackerman, Castel)
Melon has 60% of plantings
Domaine de l’Ecu soil focus: “granite”, “gneiss”

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103
Q

Loire Overview

A

Pays Nantais 22%, Anjou-Saumur 37%, Touraine 31%, Central Vineyards 10%
50% negociants (10 control 4/5 of segment), 40% estates, 10% co-ops
Organic production less than national average
Trend for negociants to make wines, family businesses buy grapes to hedge hail/frost

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104
Q

Anjou-Saumur plantings

A

40% Cabernet Franc, 25% Chenin Blanc - 5% Grolleau Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay

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105
Q

Touraine plantings

A

Cabernet Franc: 30%, Chenin Blanc 20%
Sauvignon Blanc 20%, Gamay 10%
Also Malbec and Chardonnay

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106
Q

Anjou-Touraine environment

A

Continental (Anjou-Saumur has more maritime), 700 mm
Anjou has schist and limestone (draining+retention)
Fercal+Riparia Gloire for chlorosis (lime content)

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107
Q

Chenin Blanc

A

Early budding, late ripening, vigorous, high yields, powdery mildew, botrytis, trunk diseases, uneven ripening (multiple passes, limits mechanization)

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108
Q

Cabernet Franc

A

Early budding, mid-ripening, prone to coloure, greenness, winter hardy - blended with Cot in Touraine

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109
Q

Other Loire Grapes

A

Grolleau Noir: Early budding, mid-ripening, botrytis: blended in rosés (Anjou/Loire)
Gamay Noir: Carbonic, Touraine/Central
Cabernet Sauvignon: Late-ripening, warmest sites of Anjou

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110
Q

Winemaking Loire

A

Chenin Blanc: cool/mid-temp, can last several months
MLF avoided, ferment and age in large oak or steel
Cabernet Franc: Crushed, fermented in concrete/wood (punch down/pump over)
Ambient yeast, used oak aging: promote fruit)
Rosés often made by direct press, or short maceration

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111
Q

Anjou AOC

A

60 hl/ha for red/white, 67 hl/ha for rosé
Anjou Blanc: min. 80% Chenin Blanc
Anjou Rouge: min. 75% Cabernet Franc/Sauvignon

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112
Q

Anjou Villages AOC

A

Still red wine only Cabernet Franc/Sauvignon

max. 55 hl/ha, September year after harvest (producers often release as Vin de France)

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113
Q

Coteaux de Layon AOC

A

Right bank slopes of Layon River, botrytized (or vine-dried) Chenin Blanc - cooked citrus, honey
35 hl/ha, 14%
CdL AOC+Village: 30 hl/ha, 15%
Bonnezeaux AOC: 25 hl/ha, 15%
CdL AOC Premier Cru Chaume: 25 hl/ha, 16.5%
Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru: 20 hl/ha, 18%

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114
Q

Savennières AOC

A

Fully dry, south slopes, rocky schist and low yield: 50 hl/ha - austere, bottle aging, some have oak
La roche aux Moines AOC
Coulée de Serrant AOC: monopole, biodynamic Nicolas Joly: 30 hl/ha, warm slopes

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115
Q

Rosé Loire AOCs

A

Rosé de Loire: max. 60 hl/ha, dry: Cabs, Gamay, Grolleau Noir
Rosé d’Anjou: max. 65 hl/ha, min. 7 g/l sugar: Grolleau, Cabs, Cot, Gamay
Pink-orange, med(+)acidity, best-selling
Cabernet d’Anjou: max. 60 hl/ha, Cabs - medium pink, medium-dry (min. 10 g/l sugar)

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116
Q

Saumur AOC

A

White 60 hl/ha, Chenin Blanc
Reds 57 hl/ha, mainly Cabernet Franc
Rosé 57 hl/ha, Cab Franc/Sauvignon
Coteaux de Saumur: sweet Chenin, 35 hl/ha

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117
Q

Saumur-Champigny

A

Red, min. 85% Cab. Franc, 57 hl/ha
Tuffeau (Turonian limestone), chalk, flint and clay - release December
Cave Robert et Marcel
Clos Rougeard

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118
Q

Touraine AOC

A

Sauvignon Blanc whites, 65 hl/ha red Cabernet Franc, Cot, Gamay
Touraine AOC Amboise (Chenin Blanc), 55 hl/ha - rouge now 100% Cot
Oisly and Chenonceaux 60 hl/ha, Sauvignon Blanc
Sand on flint in east

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119
Q

Vouvray AOC

A

Min. 95% Chenin Blan, 5% Orbois, 52 hl/ha
Flinty (perruche) clay and limestone (aubuis) over tuff (drainage)
More clay away from Loire
Dry every year, some demi-sec, sweet if conditions are right
Labeling confusing for sweetness

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120
Q

Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC

A

South of River (Loire to Cher River), 100% Chenin, 52 hl/ha

Many biodynamic estates, Jacky Blot

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121
Q

Bourgueil AOC

A

Cabernet Franc w/10% Cabernet Sauvignon, red and rosé: 55 hl/ha

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122
Q

Chinon AOC

A

Red, white and rosé
Cabernet Franc w/10% Cabernet Sauvignon: 55 hl/ha
Shorter or longer maceration
Structure on clay/limestone, lighter on sand/gravel

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123
Q

St-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil AOC

A

Cabernet Franc, similar to Saumur-Champigny AOC

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124
Q

Central Vineyards

A

Cool continental, 750 mm
Fungal diseases, low light intensity=restrained flavor
70% Sauvignon Blanc

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125
Q

Sauvignon Blanc

A

Late budding, early ripening - autumn rain issue
Vigorous (poor soils), canopy management
Powdery mildew, botrytis, esca, eutypa
Row orientation+canopy management (green flavors in shade), harvest date key
Produces concentrated flavor at high yield

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126
Q

Sancerre winemaking

A

Fermentation temps higher than New World (low mid-range rather than cool)
MLF blocked, some producers allow
François Cotat old oak, Henri Bourgeois heavily oaked

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127
Q

Sancerre AOC

A

White Sauvignon Blanc 65 hl/ha, Rosé 63 hl/ha, red 59 hl/ha Pinot Noir
Used to be Pinot Noir, replanted
200-400 m slopes, river and forest protection

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128
Q

Sancerre soils

A

Caillots: shallow 25-40 mm pebble layer over limestone: aromatic, early drinking
Terre Blanches: limestone/marl like Chablis, long maturation (Côte des Monts Damnés, Cul de Beaujeu)
Silex: Flint accumulates heat, early ripening, Les Romains: stony/smoky

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129
Q

Pouilly-Fumé AOC

A

Sauvignon Blanc, 65 hl/ha, flatter land
Frost risk, wind machines
Less aromatic than Sancerre, need more bottle aging

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130
Q

Reuilly AOC

A

Same as Sancerre, but rosé can also be Pinot Gris

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131
Q

Quincy AOC

A

White only, Sauvignon Blanc (90%) or Sauvignon Gris

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132
Q

Menetou-Salon AOC

A

Same as Sancerre, gentle south slopes (more frost),

inexpensive to mid-priced

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133
Q

Languedoc environment

A

Warm Mediterranean, <600mm rain = 240,000 ha
NW Tramontane wind 2/3 of year, low yields
1/3 of France’s organic wine

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134
Q

Languedoc business

A

15% AOC, 70% IGP, rosé growing (+35%), exports +15% (growth in US, China)
Chateaus on rise
Trend of mid-priced wines, varietal blends from sub-zones + small producers
Sud de France promotional body
ViniSud wine fair

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135
Q

Pays d’Oc IGP

A

10-15% of all French wine, 1/2 red, 25% white - good to very good
Merlot, Cab, Chardonnay+Syrah , Marselan and Grenache Blanc
50% domestic (supermarkets, hospitality), exports to Germany, Netherlands, Blegium

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136
Q

Languedoc AOC

A

reds 50 hl/ha, whites 60 hl/ha
Percetange in vineyard and wine varies
Grapes: GSM, min. 2, none more than 80%
Principal blend min. 40%, others (Cinsaut/Carignan) max. 30%

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137
Q

Corbières AOC

A

10,000 ha - hilly Mont Tauch, D’Alaric up to 450 m
90% red, min. 40% GSM+Carignan, max. 20% permitted (Cinsaut) - yield 50 hl/ha
30% export: China, Germany, Belgium
Lledoner Pelut is principal variety
Terret Noir is permitted

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138
Q

Corbières-Boutenac AOC

A

Quality sub-zone, Grenache+Carignan+Mourvedre 70%

Syrah max. 30%, Carignan max. 50%

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139
Q

Minervois AOC

A

Range of altitudes, proximities to Mediterranean
GSM+C+C min. 50%
Balcons de l’Aude warmest, earliest harvest
Le Causse: limestone, altitude 200-500 m

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140
Q

Minervois La Liviniere

A

Only reds, limestone terrace 400 m
GSM min. 40%, GSM+C+C min. 80%
Rivairenc permitted

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141
Q

St Chinian AOC

A

Red and rose, GSM min. 50%
North: arid draining schist, Roquebrun+Berlou
South: clay/limestone, more water retention+less concentration

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142
Q

Fitou AOC

A

Split around Corbieres, first AOC in 1948
Flat clay/limestone plain at coast, draining schist inland
Carignan 10-40%, Grenache min. 20%
Mont Tauch co-op 1/2 of production

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143
Q

Faugeres AOC

A

250-400m, draining schist: 50 hl/ha red
Low avg. yield 33 hl/ha
40% organic, one year aging
90% of consumption in France

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144
Q

Pic-Saint-Loup AOC

A 
1,000 m - continental w/cold winters
50% Syrah w/G or M, only red and rosé
Lascaux Les Nobles Pierres Syrah w/G
Rose 30% min Syrah
Hail damage 50% in 2016
Montpellier close (development danger)
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145
Q

Terrasses du Larzac AOC

A

120-400 m, new in 2014 (20 degree diurnal range), foot of Mont Baudille
Only red, at least three varieties
Carignan max. 30%
La Peira

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146
Q

La Clape AOC

A

New in 2015, coastal Mourvedre 80% red
Whites 60% Grenache Blanc/Bourboulenc
Bourboulenc 40%, main includes Piquepoul Blanc/Clairette, permitted = Maccabeu

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147
Q

Picpoul de Pinet AOC

A

Made from Piquepoul Blanc, retains acidity
55 hl/ha, medium body, 65% export (UK 60% of export, US and Netherlands), tourism
Co-ops 90%, Ormarine

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148
Q

Malepère AOC

A

Mountains protect from Mediterranean, min. 40% Merlot, 2 varieties
Cabernet Franc, Cot

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149
Q

Cabardès AOC

A

Mediterranean and Atlantic, 40% Bordeaux, 40% Syrah or Grenache

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150
Q

Provence Overview

A

90% Rosé, red from GSM+C2, whites from Rolle+Clairette
Warm Mediterranean, Mistral cooling/disrupts fruit set
Organic vineyards 2x national average
35% Grenache, 15% Cinsaut+Syrah
Bush vines replaced by trellises, inter-row machine access
Tibouren best on coast

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151
Q

Provence Winemaking

A

Pale color reds incl. Cinsaut, Tibouren -20% white grapes allowed in blend but 10% typical, lower alcohol
Direct pressing most common, acidification typical
Protect against oxidation: chill fruit to 4 degrees, Inertys press
Stainless steel, cultured yeast 14-18 - fruity, not banana
Whole bunch = gentler extraction but more labor, machines faster + at night but need skilled driver
MLF blocked, fining makes wine paler

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152
Q

Côtes de Provence AOC

A

20,000 ha, 90% rosé - GSM, Cinsaut+Tibouren (blend)
Yield 55 hl/ha (45 hl/ha avg.)
Saint-Victoire sub-zone has 50 hl/ha (min. 50% Grenache/Syrah)
Fréjus is volcanic
Pale pink-orange, medium acidity
Cru classé to 25 estates, Clos Mireille
Chateau d’Esclans Garrus: new oak

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153
Q

Coteaux Varois en Provence/Coteaux d’Aix en Provence

A

Max. 50 hl/ha, same grapes w/Counoise, Carignan, Cabernet (30% max.) - with CdP, 95% of Provence wine
Aix = Vermentino whites

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154
Q

Les Baux de Provence AOC

A

Northwest, closer to Rhone - red wines, GSM 60%
Totally biodynamic: C3 up to 30%
Domaine de Trevallon releases Cab/Syrah blend as IGP Alpilles

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155
Q

Bandol AOC

A

Used to be more red, now rosé 60% volume
Terraced south slopes for wind protection
Limestone and clay, 600 ha
Pebbly limestone w/sandy marl, restanque terraces on hillside
Red 50-95% Mourvedre, 18 months (rosé min. 20%)
40 hl/ha
Domaine Tempier
50% co-ops (Vignerons de la Cadiérenne)

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156
Q

Bellet/Cassis/Palette AOC

A

Bellet: near Nice, Rolle w/ Chardonnay
Bracquet grape for rose-scented rosé
Cassis: only predominantly white Provence AOC, Marsanne dominated blends w/Clairette
Palette: Chateau Simone, hand harvest, 40 ha, 18 months - rosés include 15% white grapes

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157
Q

Provence Business

A

2/3 domestic, supermarkets+cellar door (tourism)
France consumes 1/3 of world’s rosé
US is 1/2 of all exports, UK next (13%)
1000% growth in value/half that in volume this century
Riviera used for marketing
Var department is 60% co-ops, Provence is 50% negociants

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158
Q

Roussillon Overview

A

21,000 ha in Pyrenees, 70% AOC (no flat land) -1/3 less since 1980s
AOC+PGI volume equal, 75% co-ops
500-600 mm, warm Mediterranean
15% organic
Bush vines, shading, trellising (manual labor)

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159
Q

Côtes du Roussillon AOC

A

5,000 ha, low slopes 100-250 m
Red, rosé+white max. 48 hl/ha
Vineyard Carignan max. 50%, Syrah +/or Mourvedre min. 25% - blend of 2, main max. 80%

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160
Q

Côtes du Roussillon Villages AOC

A

Only red wines, less than 1/2 size of CdR
max. 45 hl/ha, often less, 100-400 m
Tautavel (Maury Sec) 42 hl/ha, Caramany carbonic Carignan

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161
Q

Collioure AOC

A

Boundaries of Banyuls AOC: makes dry red and white
Majority GSM reds, whites are Grenache Gris
Max. 40 hl/ha for red and white (typically 20-25 hl/ha)

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162
Q

Roussillon Business

A

IGP Côtes Catalanes
Red and white, some premium white (Domaine Gauby)
Clos des Fées, Le Soula
Domaine de Bila-Haut owned by Chapoutier
80% of dry wine domestic, export to China, Belgium and Germany

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163
Q

Portugal trends

A

190,000 ha (major drop in 30 years from replanting)
Alentejo investment: dry climate, flat, large estates
Training: VSP cordon/cane, bush vines in Douro/Alentejo field blends
Only 2,700 ha organic (don’t bother)
Blends typical, native varieties on rise
Bairrada traditional toneis (3-6,000l)
Skin contact/fermentation for whites

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164
Q

Portugal Business

A

Entry to EU 1986: loans/grants, co=ops are closed
Export focus: 2011-2014 bailout by EU/IMF
31 DOC+14 VR
Grapes sold to large producers, Sogrape acquires vineyards for diversity/control
Growers becoming producers, some winemakers have no vineyards
5.5 m hl wine, 2.3 m hl exports
DOC 27% of exports (40% by value)
France, Angola, Germany + UK by volume
France, US, UK + Brazil by value

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165
Q

Vinho Verde environment

A

Atlantic, River Minho, Peneda-Geres National Park mts.
16,000 ha, 9 subregions
moderate maritime, 1500 mm rain
Vintage variation: high in 2017, fell after
Inland fuller body Avesso+Alvarinho
Soils: granite bedrock, decomposed sandy granite topsoil, low fertility (manure)

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166
Q

Vinho Verde vineyard

A

Training up trees for air circulation traditional, enforçado
Pergola is ramada
Modern: rows, single/double cane Guyot+VSP, or Lyre
Summer pruning, removal of shoots/green harvest

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167
Q

Vinho Verde Grapes

A

80% white, 5% rosé (flip since 60s)
Loureiro: everywhere, more near coast
Mid-ripening, med(+)acidity, floral/herbal
Alvarinho: expanding, varietal since 2016 - med(+)body/acidity, peach
Pedernã (Arinto)-mid-ripening, neutral, high acidity
Avesso: late ripening, full body, stone fruit, less acidity
Trajadura: low acidity, peach, blends

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168
Q

Vinho Verde Production

A

Inexpensive blends, protective: carbon dioxide added, early release, low alcohol w/some sugar
Single varietal/region have lees, old oak, ambient yeast
Min. 8% ABV or 9% for sub-region
Alvarinho from Monção e Melgaço: min. 11.5%
Monovarietal alvarinho only allowed from MeM, otherwise name allowed on blend if it is 30% at least - or wine declassified to Minho VR

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169
Q

Vinho Verde Business

A

Fragmented, less than 0.1 ha (1,500 ha), only 400 bottle wines
Lima sub-zone for Loureiro varietal
Escolha, Superior: quality levels
Anselmo Mendes Muros Antigos Avesso, Alvarinho Contacto (skin contact)
Quinta de Soalheiro
DOC makes up 37% of Portuguese still wine exports
35% exported: Germany, US, Brazil+France(US by value)

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170
Q

Douro Overview

A

Douro DOC established in 1982, 38,000 ha
Fernando Nicolau de Almeida (Ferreira): Barca Velha, 1952
- Majority Tinta Roriz, other grapes - ice from Matosinhos
After EU in 1986 - jump in quality and equipment
Schist bedrock with decomposed schist topsoil
2019 change in irrigation - notify IVDP if needed for quality
North aspect, high altitude and westerly sites good in warm years

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171
Q

Douro Grapes

A

Grapes
Wines are typically blends, similar to port production
Touriga Franca - medium body, red and black fruit, floral
Touriga Nacional - high tannin + color, violet + rose
- both key for acidity and ripe black fruit
Sousão increasing, high acidity even for warm years

White grapes: grown at highest altitudes
Viosinho - Full body, floral and stone fruit (lacks acidity)
Rabigato - high acidity, citrus/floral
Gouveio - a.k.a. Godello, medium(+) acidity, stone fruit
Moscatel Galego Branco for aroma

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172
Q

Douro Winemaking

A

> 70% is red wine, range from inexpensive to premium
Prats & Symington, Quinta do Vale Meão
Destemming typical (high tannin grapes, green flavors)
24-28 C fermentation, low for red wines (tannin control)
Lagars sometimes used: easier to monitor extraction
Larger oak (400-500l) now becoming more common

25% is white wine, typically medium/medium(+) acidity
Premium whites fermented in oak, old vine grapes

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173
Q

Douro Business

A

Business
Port is 60% of region’s production, but Douro DOC growing (more than 500,000 hl in 2017)
Still wines represent 30% of DOC production, VR Duriense for producers who use international grapes (Syrah, Chardonnay)
Price for Douro DOC grapes is much lower than Port grapes
Niepoort’s Batuta: Roriz Franca Rufete
Quinta do Crasto monovarietal
Domestic 64% by volume, exports Canada, Brazil and UK

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174
Q

Dão Overview

A

Warm Mediterranean climate, surrounded by mountains
Rainfall from 1,100 mm in east to 1,600 in west, mostly fall/winter
Around 20,000 ha of vines in a large pine/eucalyptus forest
Typical altitude is 400-500 m, range from 200-900
Serra da Caramulo Atlantic protection
Serra da Estrela in east, 900 m
Soil: Sandy/loamy granite, low organic matter, free draining
Hazards: Summer hail and spring frosts
Bush vines are now double/single Guyot (cane) or cordon VSP
High around 250,000 hl DOC wine
Quinta das Maias: elegant Jaen, organic

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175
Q

Dão Red Grapes

A

Grapes
80% red wine, generally fresher and higher acidity than Douro
Touriga Nacional: high tannin and acidity, black fruit and floral
Tinta Roriz: Early ripening, medium/medium(+) tannins, full body
- Either for single varietal or blend
Jaen: Moderate acidity, raspberry/blackberry (sometimes carbonic)
Alfrocheiro: Medium body/tannin, strawberry + blackberry
- Soft and fruity on its own, or added to blends
Reds used to be astringent from oak, shorter periods now typical

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176
Q

Dão Business

A

> 90% of vineyards less than 0.5 ha, more than 30,000 growers
Producers: Vinha Paz and Quinta da Pellada
15-20% exported: Canada, Brazil, USA and China

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177
Q

Bairrada Overview

A

Maritime climate, 800-1,200 mm of rain in spring and autumn
10,000 ha of vineyards
Soils: fertile alluvial in west, limestone/clay slopes
Cantanhede: limestone clay for Baga in south
Individually staked bush vines were traditional, now Guyot (cane) or VSP

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178
Q

Bairrada wines

A

2/3 red wine
Baga: high acidity/tannins, medium body, cranberry/cherry/plum
High-yield Baga used for Mateus Rosé (lack concentration, astringent)
Quality increasing in last 30 years
Late ripening, productive: yields have to be limited and sites selected
South aspect, eucalyptus and pine forests prevent against wind
Limestone-clay soils for best ripening and water retention - reflect sunlight, aiding ripening
Green harvest to enhance ripening
Whole bunches add fruit, stems give structure for aging
Maturation in large (500-650 l) French oak, or large toneis
Niepoort Lagar de Baixo Baga
Hotel Buçaco blends

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179
Q

Bairrada White Grapes

A

Maria Gomes: early ripening, high yielding, citrus and floral
Bical: Early ripening, peach + tropical
- Both lose acidity quickly if left on vine
Arinto + Cercial: Apple/citrus, add acidity to blends
International varieties like Sauvignon Blanc + Chardonnay
Sandy soils produce inexpensive wines
traditional method sparkling is 10% of production

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180
Q

Dão White Grapes

A

Encruzado: Medium/medium(+) acidity, full body, lemon and peach

- Oaked wines age with nutty flavor
- Malvasia Fina, Bical and Cercial are also common
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181
Q

Bairrada Business

A

Baga Friends = small group of quality producers
2,000 growers, with merchants and co-ops
Bairrada 92,000 hl in 2017, 52,000 in 2018
VR Beira Atlantico = 25,000 ha
Luis Pato/Filipa Pato use VR label to object to international varieties

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182
Q

Baga Clássico

A

min. 50% Baga, min. 85% blend of Baga, Touriga Nacional, Alfrocheiro, Jaen and Camarate

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183
Q

Lisboa Environment

A

From Lisbon to 150 km north
Coastal Serra de Montejunto range splits region
18,000 ha
Clay-limestone on coast, challenging wet region
East region more protected for fuller bodied wines

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184
Q

Lisboa Grapes

A

Touriga Nacional and Aragonez, Arinto have highest potential

International varieties: Syrah, Cab. Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc, riesling

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185
Q

Alenquer DOC

A

Full bodied sheltered reds from Touriga Nacional and Aragonez, Lisboa

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186
Q

Bucelas

A

river valley 2-3 degrees cooler - marl and limestone

Arinto must be 75% of blend, high acid, sometimes lees

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187
Q

Colares + Carcavelos

A

historic coastal DOCs
Colares: ungrafted bush vines + sand for high acidity reds and local whites
Serra de Sintra foothills: red Ramisco, holes in sand w/ bamboo sticks
Carcavelos: sweet fortified white wine

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188
Q

Lisboa Business

A

most production from Lisboa VR, 877,000 hl (vs. 60,000 hl in DOCs)
Casa Santos Lima makes 40% of certified wine: private labels for retailers to export
Carcavelos: sweet fortified white wine

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189
Q

Setúbal

A

9,500 ha of vineyards

Hot Mediterranean climate, mild winters
Southern mountains for clay-limestone high altitude sites
Flat and sandy sites with clay and schist inland
- International varieties such as Cab. Sauvignon/Syrah (cool slopes)
- Whites: Fernão Pires, Moscatel + Arinto
Peninsula de Setúbal VR: Larger area, more flexible
217,000 hl
José Maria da Fonseca (Periquita)
Serra da Arrabida in south (clay/limestone), Palmela in north
Castelão used to be called Periquita
José Maria da Fonseca first Fair’n Green winery in Portugal
Periquita Reserva: new French/American oak, VR Peninsula Setúbal

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190
Q

Palmela DOC

A

In Setúbal, red wines, min. 67% Castelão, 171,000 hl

- Deep color, full body, red berry, oak common
- Warm sandy flat vineyards produce best quality
- Clay-limestone slopes are best for early drinking
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191
Q

Tejo

A

Inland of Lisboa, originally for volume production on fertile riverbanks

Hot Mediterranean, 750 mm rainfall

North is rainier, clay-limestone + schist: red wines
Near river, fertile alluvial soils, vigor management: white wines
South is driest, poor sandy soils: Red and white

Usually fruity style, range of wines such as Trincadeira, Castelaõ, Syrah, Cab, Fernão Pires, Arinto, Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay

Quality producer: Quinta da Alorna Castelão + Fernão Pires, also Alvarinho/Viognier blend
Zones: northern Bairro for clay/limestone+schist, Charneca flat sand, Campo alluvial soils

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192
Q

Alentejo Environment

A

Hot Mediterranean, 500 mm rain in south and 800 mm in north
Drip irrigation common
Soils include granite, schist, limestone, sand to clay
Double cordon with VSP (cane requires more labor)
Portalegre has high altitude 800 m (fresher, smaller vineyards, field blend)
Sub region: Evora
Talha DOC: destemmed, amphora until 11 November, from sub-region
Portalegre: cooler, granite soils, Tapada do Chaves field blends
Symington + Sogrape own quintas in Portalegre

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193
Q

Alentejo Red Grapes

A

Black grapes are 75% of plantings
Aragonez (Tinta Roriz), Alicante Bouschet and Trincadeira common as blend
- Aragonez can become overripe (cooler sites)
- Alicante Bouschet is teinturier, deep color, acidity + tannins
- Trincadeira susceptible to rot, high yields, medium tannin/acidity, blackberry
- Touriga Nacional sometimes included
Syrah most common of international grapes, Cab. Sauvignon decreasing
Petit Verdot for spice and tannin/color growing

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194
Q

Alentejo White Grapes

A

Roupeiro: Good acidity, susceptible to rot
Citrus and stone fruit, do not age well
Arinto: acidity retention
Antão Vaz: Drought tolerant, for early picked or full bodied, or talha wines
- can lack acidity
Chardonnay and Viognier are allowed, Alvarinho increasing
Astronauta Vinho de Talha Roupeiro

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195
Q

Alentejo Business

A

23,000 ha
DOC Alentejo made of 8 sub regions
Vinho de Talha DOC in 2010 for amphora skin wines
Corners 37% of domestic market by volume, 40% by value
20% of Portugal’s exports: Brazil, Angola, USA, Switzerland, Canada
From 510,000 hl to 592,000 hl - 2017 to 2018
Alentejano VR also increased in those years
Larger holdings than other regions, high volume mechanized vineyards
nearly doubled since 1995, now 285 producers and 22,000 ha
Proximity to Lisbon means cellar doors and other products such as olive oil

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196
Q

Loire Business

A

Specialist wine retail/hospitality (44% in France), supermarkets (36%)
80% domestic consumption

Exports 20%: US, UK and Germany

Sancerre has highest volume and value (50% more than avg. price of rest)

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197
Q

Gevrey-Chambertin AOC

A

Red wine only, largest village (Charmes Chambertin AOC)

Domaine Fourrier

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198
Q

Morey-Saint-Denis AOC

A

Almost all red wine (Clos de Tart AOC)

Domaine Dujac

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199
Q

Chambolle-Musigny AOC

A

Red only in village (Bonnes Mares+Musigny AOC)
40-50 m higher, sand amphitheater
Grower: Sylvain Cathiard

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200
Q

Vougeout AOC

A

Small red+white (Clos de Vougeot AOC, 50 ha)

80 growers

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201
Q

Vosne-Romanée AOC

A 
Red only (Romanée-Conti AOC), Anne Gros
La-Romanée 35 hl/ha
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202
Q

Nuits-Saint-Georges AOC

A

Almost all red (Premier Cru Les Saint-Georges)

Henri Gouges

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203
Q

Aloxe-Corton AOC, Pernand Vergelesses AOC and Ladoix-Serrigny AOC

A

Corton hill
Corton Charlemagne Grand Cru AOC only white
Corton Grand Cru AOC has multiple lieux-dits, mostly red but also white
No red grand crus further south

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204
Q

Beaune AOC

A

Mostly red (also white), 1er Cru Le Clos des Mouches, Les Grèves
Domaine Drouhin
Grower: Morot

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205
Q

Pommard AOC

A

Only red, 1er cru Les Rugiens and Clos des Épeneaux (Dames de la Charité)

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206
Q

Volnay AOC

A

Only red, 1er Cru Clos des Chênes and Les Caillerets

Lafarge

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207
Q

Meursault AOC

A

Only white, Perrières and Charmes

Domaine des Comtes Lafon

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208
Q

Puligny-Montrachet

A

Only white

Grand Crus: Le Montrachet AOC, Bâtard-Montrachet AOC

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209
Q

Chassagne-Montrachet

A

Some red at village and 1er Cru level

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210
Q

St Aubin AOC

A

Only white, 1er Cru Sur le Sentier du Clou and En Remilly

St Romain AOC: Mainly white

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211
Q

Auxey-Duresses AOC + Santenay AOC

A

Mainly red

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212
Q

Bouzeron AOC

A

100% Aligoté, finest plantings

Domaine A et P de Villaine

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213
Q

Rully AOC

A

More whites than reds (1er Cru for both, 25% of appellation)
Crémant de Bourgogne is major here
Jacqueson

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214
Q

Mercurey AOC

A

More red than white, 25% 1er Cru
40% of Chalonnaise red
Faiveley

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215
Q

Givry AOC

A

Mostly red, 40% 1er Cru

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216
Q

Montagny AOC

A

Only white, 2/3 1er Cru

Louis Latour is large part of production (1er Cru La Grand Roche)

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217
Q

Mâconnais

A

Mostly white, inexpensive often labelled as Bourgogne AOC
Reds are often Gamay
Lafon makes single-vineyard whites (Clos de la Crochette in village of Chardonnay)
Cave de Lugny cooperative

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218
Q

Mâcon AOC

A

Mostly red/rosé, small white

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219
Q

Mâcon-Villages

A

Mâcon-Chardonnay, Mâcon-Lugny
Named villages: Pouilly-Fuissé AOC, Saint-Verán AOC + Viré-Clesse AOC
Also Pouilly-Vinzelles, Pouilly-Loché

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220
Q

Petit Chablis

A

Higher and cooler, Portlandian (Tithonian) hard limestone w/less clay, 60 hl/ha

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221
Q

Chablis

A

Kimmeridgian, different aspects

(Flat land or gentle slopes, often face north), 60 hl/ha

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222
Q

Chablis Premier Cru

A

40 named vineyards, S and SE slopes, Kimmeridgian
Some have lieux-dit piece of land within them, this name can be used
e.g. Montmains on left bank has Butteaux, 58 hl/ha

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223
Q

Chablis Grand Cru

A

Single Grand Cru with 7 named climats: e.g. Les Clos, Vaudesir
SW on right bank of Serein (more weight and concentration
Soil: crumbly marl for drainage, clay for water retention
only 1% of production
Protected from north wind by belt of trees
54 hl/ha

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224
Q

Chablis winemaking

A

Chaptalisation common except in warm years
Stainless steel fermentation, steel/concrete storage
MLF is common, lees as well
Raveneau old oak, Louis Michel steel, Fèvre new oak

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225
Q

China Overview

A

Cabernet Sauvignon by far dominates
Merlot, Carmenère (Cabernet Gernischt)
Red predominantly - oak or not
French investment is key

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226
Q

China History

A
  • Late 19th century, Zhang Bishi imports 150 V. vinifera varieties
    • Changyu winery in Yantai (Shangdong Province)
  • Expansion in 1980s: CITIC partnership with France and Remy Martin
    • Dynasty wine, in Huailai (near Beijing)
    • Dragon Seal joint venture w/Pernod Ricard
    • Ningxia Province: Chandon
  • Government campaign in 1990s promoted wine
    • Health and shortage of grains (less grain alcohol)
  • 10% of vine area for vineyards (rest for table grapes, gift giving)
  • Domestic wine shift: anti-extravagance laws mean wineries cannot gift to officials
    • Consumers are now targeted
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227
Q

Heilongjian + Jilin

A

Far northeast, extreme cold (winter burying, water retention underground)

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228
Q

Beijing + Hebei

A

Humid continental, torrential rain August/September
200-300 mm rain per year, cool Pacific breezes moderate temps and reduce humidity
Fungal diseases in summer
Plantings used to be flat land, poor draining and fertile
Vines near ocean do not need burying, but have humidity, rain and fertile soils
Wine+ecotourism, grape festival and Great Wall route

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229
Q

Shandong

A

Warm maritime, wetter and w/rain August/September before or at harvest
Rot is a problem due to precipitation
1/4 of China’s wineries, Chateau Lafite’s Penglai Estate tourism - Long Dai Marselan

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230
Q

Shanxi + Shaanxi

A

Dry continental (<500 mm rain)
Grace Vineyard Aglianico on loess
Shaanxi is more humid to the south, more fungal disease

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231
Q

Ningxia

A

Arid continental (200 mm rain), monsoons, windy
Yellow River for irrigation water
Helan Shan region: mountains protect from NW desert wind
Silver Heights
Kanaan Riesling

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232
Q

Xinjiang + Gansu

A

NW Xinjiang extremely dry (80 mm of rain), early winter snow
Wind and frost (spring and autumn), vines at 1,100m+
Water from snowmelt Tian Shan mountains, warm climate+dry=high volume
Gansu is dry, short growing season, cooler than Xinjian
Wine sold to wineries in east

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233
Q

Yunnan

A 
Far south, sub-tropical and humid
High altitude (1,600-2,900 m) slopes in Himalayan foothills
Long season without frost, no winter burying
Ao Yun includes Petit Verdot
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234
Q

China Vineyard Management

A

Traditional vineyards: ungrafted
- Multi Cordon Fan training (low trunk, table grapes)
- Single Dragon (spur-pruned cordon at angle)
These systems are high-yielding, w/o single fruiting zone (uneven ripening)
New training: Chang spur-pruning w/trunk bent for easy burial+unified fruit
Quality risks? Dense canopy, over-irrigation and fertilization
Leaf roll virus (under-ripe fruit)
Use of Cabernet Sauvignon+Carmènere: green flavors if under-ripe
Lack of training and planting material (in past)
All land is government-owned, so changes have to be officially approved
Vineyard advisers cannot change training system without agricultural unit
Burying from November to March-April: manual labor skill, 20-30% cost increase
- Machines can help but people are essential
- Older skilled laborers want more pay, younger people want to go to cities

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235
Q

China Winemaking

A

V. amurensis (Amur Valley), cold-resistant but unusual aromas
70% Cabernet, 10% Carmenère

Winemaking
Bordeaux-style, premium wines 18 months in French oak
Technical skills improving, faults decreasing (volatile/Brett)
Better canopy management and harvest planning: riper tannins
Top award won by Helan Qingxue at Decanter

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236
Q

China Law

A

Wine is treated as food product, whether Chinese or imported
100% fermented grape juice, alcohol percent, production date + shelf life
10% industrial (not agricultural) tax on product

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237
Q

China Business

A

Affluent middle-class: market growth 70% in last decade
5th largest consumer in world, per capita very low (1.5 liter)
3 companies: Changyu, Great Wall (COFCO) and Dynasty
- Mostly bulk, rely on blends w/imported wines
- Diverse portfolios: COFCO’s Chateau Junding premium
- Acquisition of foreign wineries
- Grace Vineyard in Shangxi, Silver Heights in Ningxia, Ao Yun in Yunnan

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238
Q

China Trends

A

Online sales important (TMall) and Alibaba
Fraud of top imported wines is a problem
Consumption overwhelmingly domestic
Wine can be purchased at any time of day in supermarkets, hospitality, KTV, tobacco

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239
Q

Jura Environment

A

Moderate continental, high rainfall (1,100 mm)
Threat to flowering, fruit set - makes vineyard work difficult (heavy clay soils)
- Weed work and fungal disease sprays add cost, hail loses crop
Altitudes: 250-400 m, clay + marl soils (some limestone)
Grass between rows reduce erosion, less herbicide use (only right below vines)
Replacement cane at height (frost), VSP for air flow
Machine harvesting except on steep slopes
Avg. yield reds 23 hl/ha in 2017 (much below max. due to weather)

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240
Q

Jura Grapes

A

Chardonnay (40% of plantings)
- Cremant de Jura, early budding spring frosts

Savagnin (20% of plantings)
- Early budding (frost), resistant to fungals, steep marl slopes

Poulsard (15% of plantings)
- Very early budding, coulure and fungal diseases (less yield, cost)

Pinot Noir (10% of plantings)
- Crémant, red blends, single variety increasing

Trousseau (8% of plantings)

  • Thick skin, resistant to fungal disease (but botrytis is a problem)
  • Poor flowering and coulure, vigorous variety
  • Warm sites, gravel/low slopes or exposed higher slopes
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241
Q

Jura Winemaking

A

Whites: Mid-range temps in steel/oak barrels for Chardonnay/Savagnin (less fruity esters)
MLF is typical

Reds: Short maceration (5-10 days), 30 C or below
Poulsard can be carbonic/semi
Old oak aging (less than one year)
Trousseau and Pinot Noir may be macerated on skins longer

Very little new oak, some Chardonnay is “Burgundian”: old oak ferment with lees stirring for body

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242
Q

Vin Jaune

A

Savagnin fermented to dryness, then aged with ouillage - develops ‘le voil’ of flor-type yeast
No topping up or moving for 60 months (many wines for blending are removed earlier)
Inoculation or natural (well-ventilated cellar, temperature fluctuations in seasons)
Alcohol rises 1% up to 13.5-15 (transpiration through barrels)
Style: medium lemon/gold, pronounced dough walnuts, ginger green apple, medium body

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243
Q

Vin de Paille

A

Sweet wine, grapes dried off vine: any variety but Pinot Noir
More than 14% ABV, sugar 70-120 g/l typically, 18 months oak, 3 years aging
Yield 20 hl/ha

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244
Q

Côtes du Jura AOC

A

560 ha, whole Jura region including specific village appellations
- Any style allowed, but most is white

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245
Q

Arbois AOC

A

780 ha, all five wines, most Jura reds come from this AOC

Yield 55 hl/ha, average 23 hl/ha

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246
Q

Château-Chalon AOC

A

Vin Jaune only, 54 ha

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247
Q

L’Etoile AOC

A

White wines + Vin Jaune + Vin de Paille, 73 ha

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248
Q

Jura white wine

A

White wine (except for Vin Jaune/Vin de Paille)

- Savagnin and/or Chardonnay min. 80% of blend
- Yield 60 hl/ha
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249
Q

Jura red/rosé

A

Red/rosé

- Pinot noir/Poulsard/Trousseau min. 80% of blend
- Yield 55 hl/ha
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250
Q

Vine Jaune law

A
  • Only Savagnin, yield 60 hl/ha
  • Château-Chalon yield 30 hl/ha
  • 60 months under voile
  • Sale January 7 years after harvest
  • 62 cl clavelin bottle (exception at EU level)
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251
Q

Jura Business

A

Vine radically reduced since 1850s
Vin Jaune is 5% of production, Vin de Paille tiny

50% estates, négociants 30%, 4 co-ops 20%

50% of wine from 3 companies:
co-op Fruitière Vinicole d’Arbois
négociant La Maison du Vigneron
Henri Maire (owned by Boisset)

20% organic (2x French average), lots of natural wines

Vintage variation huge

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252
Q

South Africa Environment

A

Warm Mediterranean, Western Cape slopes and mountains
Benguela Current flows north, cooling influence
Agulhas Current from Indian Ocean between Cape Town and Cape Agulhas
Cape Doctor wind: SE, spring and summer - inhibits disease but can damage leaves/inhibit flowering

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253
Q

Pinotage

A

U of Stellenbosch, 1925: Cinsaut (Hermitage) x Pinot Noir
Early budding, moderate susceptibility to fungal disease
High alcohol + small berries: deep color, short post-fermentation maceration
Quality dubious, but avoiding water stress and lowering fermentation temps helps

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254
Q

South Africa Soils

A
  1. Table Mountain sandstone: sandy, low nutrients, draining (irrigation+fertilisation)
  2. Granite soils: foothill slopes of mountains: hold water, good for dry farming
  3. Shale soils: Good nutrients and water retention, good for dry farming
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255
Q

South Africa Vineyard

A

Acidity in Cape soils is an issue: lime treatment typical (otherwise, nutrient availability is affected)
Viral diseases such as leafroll/fanleaf reduce yield, require replacement
- Solution: viral testing
Powdery mildew most common, treated by systemic fungicides or organic treatments
Training: VSP cordon, 2.4m tall fruiting wire
Short spur pruning also common (mechanization), but hand harvest due to cheap labor

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256
Q

South Africa Sustainability

A

Integrated pest management (organic and biodynamic uncommon)
Integrated Production of Wine system: 1998, detailed guide to wine making, including soil, carbon emissions, staff training (90% of export producers, 95% of grapes)
- How is it controlled? Self-control, audits of documentation, spot-check

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257
Q

South Africa High-Volume

A 
High-volume inexpensive
High yield, spraying, little sorting
Blend up to 15% of Colombard
Acidification, no MLF, cultured yeast
Cool fermentation, stainless steel or concrete
Several months in tank/old oak, chips/staves
Residual sugar 5 g/l or more (RCGM)
Fining and filtering
Bulk transport for bottling
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258
Q

South Africa Small-Volume Premium

A

Low yield, dry farming/old vines, some botrytis, sorting
100% Chenin Blanc
No acidification, no MLF, yeast depends on choice
Cool fermentation, maybe eggs or amphora
Fermentation in barrels for better oak integration
3-9 months on lees, or 10-12 months in eggs/amphora/old oak, or new oak for 10-12 months
No adjustment of sugar, 1.5-6 g/l
Fining and filtering as needed
Bottled in South Africa

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259
Q

Pinotage Winemaking

A

cold soak for extraction, pumping down/punching over early on for less tannins
Red plum/blackberry, high tannins, high alcohol
Traditional style has 3-5 days post-fermentation maceration, modern style lighter
Premium wines often have more than 50% new oak barriques, 12-15 months (75%)

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260
Q

South Africa Laws

A

Geographical unit: Large areas (Western Cape is nearly all of South Africa)
Region: Large areas such as Coastal Region or Breede River Valley
District: Stellenbosch, Walker Bay
Ward: Area within District (Simonsberg-Stellenbosch)

Ward is based on climate/soil/ecology, district is broader
Estate wine: grown made and bottled on estate
Single-vineyard also legal definition - Registered, single variety, no more than 6 ha

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261
Q

Wine of Origin South Africa

A

certifies labeling claim: 100% region, 85% vintage, 85% variety
Quality also certified, seal with ID number goes on packaging

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262
Q

Integrated Production of Wine

A

1998: sustainable farming guidelines (95%)

263
Q

WWF-SA Conversion Champion Programme

A
  • Biodiversity and Wine Initiative (BWI), 2005: 90% by 2015

- Now WWF-SA Conversion Champion Programme for biodiversity/energy efficiency

264
Q

Integrity and Sustainability

A
  • Wine and Spirits Board for Integrity and Sustainability seal in 2010
    • Chemical usage, water management and natural predators, linked to Wine of Origin
265
Q

Wine and Agricultural Ethical Trade Association (WIETA)

A
  • Voluntary business association for audited ethical trade
  • 60% of wineries have certification for fair working conditions
  • 2/3 of Fairtrade wines comes from South Africa
266
Q

South Africa Business

A

Trade sanctions removed with democracy in 1994, foreign investors came in
KWV rights repealed from 1992, privatized in 1997
- previously fixed prices of wine, approved purchased, set quotes, controlled vine cuttings
- end of regulation allowed focus on quality production, new channels
Wines of South Africa founded in 1990s, funded by export levies
Half of wines are domestic
Low consumption per capita, stable in decades - value packs (bricks)
Distell has more than 40% of domestic market
Volume exports have exploded, more than 135 countries
UK is 25% of exports, then Germany
US, China and African countries are crucial for value
Goal is to increase packaged wine, but bulk is winning
Bulk wine means lower prices, and jobs lost in finishing/packaging
Many producers have an unsustainable income level

267
Q

Coastal Region

A

45% of country’s vineyards, 25% of wine (lower yields)

268
Q

District: Cape Town

A
  • defined 2017, four wards (repealed Cape Peninsula)

- Connection between vineyard area and tourism destination

269
Q

Ward: Constantia

A
  • Vin de Constance: dried Muscat sweet wine, Klein Constantia
  • E slopes of Constantiaberg (south of Table Mountain)
  • 10 km from False Bay, cooling breezes
  • 1,000 mm of rain per year
  • Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz
  • No Pinot Noir due to windy conditions
  • Producers: Klein Constantia and Steenberg
270
Q

Ward: Durbanville

A
  • north suburbs of Cape Town
    • Shale soil, Tygerberg hills, altitude 100-300
    • Rainfall just 500 mm due to mountain protection
    • Water-retaining soils for dry farming
    • Breezes from False Bay, evening mist reduces temps by 5 degrees
    • Sauvignon Blanc is main variety (greener)
    • Producers: Bloemendal and Diemersdal
      Bloemendal’s Suider Terras Sauvignon Blanc starts ferment in concrete, then moved to 100% new French oak for 11 months off lees
271
Q

District: Stellenbosch

A
  • Around town of Stellenbosch, w/enology university
  • Established country’s reputation for quality w/Cabernet Sauvignon
  • Business: Distell (largest producer), new estates, growers
  • Mountain slops, soil types and False Bay breezes provide cooling
  • 600-900 mm of rain per year, warm climate
  • Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot + Pinotage
  • Whites: Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc and Chardonnay
  • Lower yield and earlier harvests make fresher, low alcohol wines
    Producers: Rust en Vrede (Tukulu granite soils) and Raats Family Wines
    Kanonkop in Stellenbosch has two ranges:
    Kadette for easy drinking, Estate for complex wines
272
Q

Ward: Simonsberg-Stellenbosch

A
  • SW slopes of Simonsberg, warmer than bay and Stellenbosch/Helderberg sites
  • Ocean breezes, larger diurnal range than flat sites
  • Cabernet Sauvignon/Pinotage reputation
  • Producers: Kanonkop + Rustenberg
273
Q

istrict: Paarl

A
  • North of Stellenbosch, many different climates
  • Rainfall 800-900 mm, Berg River for irrigation water
  • Ripe and fuller body than Stellenbosch
  • Chenin Blanc, Cab. Sauvignon, Shiraz and Pinotage
  • Viognier and Mourvèdre increasing in warm sites
  • Voor Paardeberg ward is increasing
  • Producers: Nederburg (Distell) and Vilafonté (classy)
274
Q

Ward: Simonsberg-Paarl

A
  • Warmer side of Simonsberg, higher elevation (diurnal range)
  • Chardonnay and Shiraz/red blends
  • Producers: Glen Carlou, Plaisir de Merle
275
Q

District: Franschhoek Valley

A
  • SE of Paarl, bordered by mountains on three sides
  • Valley floor of 300 m, now sites up to 600 m for diurnal range
  • 800 mm of rain a year, but draining soils require irrigation
  • Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz
  • Old-vine Semillon
  • Fresher fruit for blending found here
  • Producers: Boekenhoutskloof (Chocolate Block), Cape Chamonix
276
Q

District: Darling

A
  • North of Cape Town, hills parallel to West Coast
  • Groenekloof ward has aspects for ocean breezes
  • Sauvignon Blanc dominants, also fresh reds (Cab/Merlot/Shiraz)
  • Weathered granite soils for water retention (dry farming/bush vines)
  • Producers: Neil Ellis (buys grapes), Groote Post
277
Q

District: Swartland

A
  • Warm, dry with 500 mm per year (in growing season)
  • Old vines are famous, lower yields (otherwise irrigation)
  • Low fertility granite/shale soils around Paardeberg
  • 1) Older businesses (co=ops): Perdeberg Wines/Riebeek valley Wine Co.
  • 2) Modern 2000s wave of new growers/styles
    • Charles Back at Spice Route, Eben Sadie/Chris Mullineux
    • Low yields, dry farming, organic, old vines, ambient yeast, old oak
  • Fruit sourced here for Cape Blends, big six plus Cinsault, Rhone grapes
    Swartland Independent: natural wines without chemical fining, no more than 25% new oak
278
Q

District: Tulbagh

A
  • No coastal influence, warm horseshoe valley
  • Altitude (400-500 m), mountain shade and cold morning air trapped
  • Soil holds water and rainwater can be collected
  • Chenin, Shiraz and Colombard for cheap blends
  • Pinotage for premium Blends
  • Producers: Saronberg for Shiraz/Shiraz blends
279
Q

District: Wellington

A
  • Just NE of Cape Town, Shiraz and red blends
  • Alluvial terraces near Swartland
  • Foothills of Hawequa Mountains bring folds and valleys
  • Nurseries here supply 85% of vine cuttings
  • Producer: bosman family vineyards
280
Q

District: Breedekloof

A
  • Grape growing without irrigation due to adequate rainfall
  • Snow in winter and spring delay budburst (otherwise spring frost)
  • Warm continental climate for later harvest
  • SE winds for lower temp/disease
  • Varied soils for big 6 varieties
  • Producers: Du Toitskloof Cellar co-op, Deetlefs
281
Q

District: Worcester

A
  • Low rain 400 mm (rain shadow), irrigation needed
  • Fertile loam soils for high volume, distilling industry
  • Colombard/Chenin Blanc, now joined by Chardonnay/Sauvignon/Viognier/Shiraz
282
Q

District: Robertson

A
  • Low rainfall, irrigation needed: SE winds for cooling and Indian Ocean moisture
  • Flat plains for fertile conditions, high yields (historically distillation)
  • Limestone soils for Chardonnay is important
  • Growing recognition of Shiraz/Cabernet Sauvignon
  • Producers Robertson Winery, De Wetshof, Graham Beck
283
Q

OLIFANTS RIVER REGION

A
  • Very dry (200 mm rain) warm, irrigation needed
  • High yields, distillation
  • Namaqua Wines for domestic and UK export, inexpensive
  • Citrusdal Mountain/Lutzville Valley districts
    • Bamboes Bay + Piekenierskloof wards
    • Old vine dry farming, 450-550 m altitude and Atlantic Ocean cooling
  • Producers: Sadie Family Wines, Alheit Vineyards
    Citrusdal mountain ward, Skurfberg mountain: Eben Sadie’s Kokerboom single-vineyard semillon
284
Q

CAPE SOUTH COAST

A 
Atlantic Ocean: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir
Recent plantings (1990s) and small (>3% of country's plantings)
285
Q

District: Walker Bay

A

Cool, next to Atlantic Ocean
1975: Tim Hamilton-Russell planted Chardonnay and Pinot Noir
Then in 1989, others came along

286
Q

Ward: Hemel-en-Aarde

A
  • Inland of Hermanus, cooling winds reduce vigor
  • North aspect to achieve ripeness
  • Clay soils up to 55% (Burgundy), water holding capacity
  • Apart from Chardonnay/Pinot Noir, big six and Albariño/Viognier
287
Q

Hemel-en-Aarde Valley

A
  • lowest altitude, original area (nearest to Atlantic)
    • Fresher than inland areas but still ripe, upwards of 14%
    • Producers: bouchard Finlayson
288
Q

Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley

A
  • Higher elevation, N and W aspect

- Producers: Newton Johnson Family Vineyards

289
Q

Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge

A
  • Coldest, highest (up to 400 m)
    • Further insland, S and E facing slopes
    • Babylonstoren Mountains trap clouds, moisture and shade
    • Producers: Creation
290
Q

Ward: Bot River

A
  • Bot River Lagoon funnels cold wind into nearby mountain slopes
  • Warmer than Hemel-en-Aarde, cooler than Paarl/Stellenbosch
  • Long growing season for Sauvignon Blanc + Chenin
  • Rhone varieties and Pinotage also grown
  • Producers: Beaumont
    New Baby 5 white varietals in 30% new oak
291
Q

District: Elgin

A
  • 70 km SE of Cape town, on plateau 200-400 m
  • Much cooler than other areas, 3/4 of growing degree days
  • Altitude, clouds and ocean influence lower temperatures
  • 1,000 mm per year of rain, fungal diseases - some botrytised wine
  • Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Riesling, Pinot Noir, Merlot and Shiraz
  • Producers: Paul Cluver, Richard Kershaw Wines
292
Q

KLEIN KAROO

A

Semi-arid, 4 hours east of Cape town
Port-style wines in Calitzdorp, fortified Muscat, whites for brandy
Some Sauvignon Blanc/Chardonnay/Shiraz in mountains

293
Q

Tokaj Environment

A

Zemplen Mountains, 6,000 ha
150-400 m altitude, latitude 48-49 (limits of viticulture)
Rainfall 500-600 mm per year (summer), no irrigation
1,500 sunlight hours: South/SE slopes
Tisza+Bodrog Rivers - the Bodrog floods (moist marsh air)
Soils: loess (sandy silt w/clay) Tokaj hill light wines
and volcanic nyirok, powerful
Volcanic bedrock for deep roots and cellars for aging
Zasmidium cellare fungus in cellars regulates humidity

294
Q

Tokaj Vineyard Management

A

Traditional: single post, 10,000 vines/ha
Now cane/cordon VSP, 4,000-5,000 vines/ha
Mechanization possible, slopes are worked by hand
Hand harvest for aszú berries, labor available
Disease: powdery mildew, grey rot in wet years
Wild boar and birds, canopy management
Yields 2 to 3 hl/ha, dry wines 30 to 40 hl/ha

295
Q

Furmint

A

69% of plantings, dry to sweet
Late-ripening, high acidity + thick skin
High sugar, shriveling - retains acidity
Ageworthy wines aged in oak (can be high alcohol)
Lemon, apple pear - honey and nuts with age
Botrytis gives mango and dried apricot

296
Q

Other Tokaj Grapes

A

Hárslevelü
18%, fruitier white peach and orange blossom: perfume
Usually in blends, but also varietal dry and sweet

Sárga Muskotály
9% of vines, floral notes to dry and sweet, also varietal usually dry

Zéta (Oremus: Furmint+Bouvier), Kabar (Hárslevelü and Bouvier)
Experiments to reintroduce nearly extinct Gohér

297
Q

Aszú Winemaking

A

Shriveled botrytis grapes, normal pressing won’t work
Macerate grapes in must/fermenting must/base wine
Style: deep amber, high acidity, low-medium alcohol, orange peel, apricots and honey
Hot dry years have much less aszú
Multiple vineyard passes required, then grapes stored
Grapes typically mashed into paste (pump)
Some producers don’t mash to avoid bitter skin/seeds
12-60 hours of paste maceration (or punch down)
Temperature 12-15, or 16-20 with strong ferment
Strength of style: must (weakest) - young wine - fermenting must (strongest)
Fermenting must is complex bust also can add bitterness
Fermenting must is most extractive early on
Juice is drained, pneumatic pressing, then fermented
Ambient yeast or cultured for reliability, steel or barrels
Stop fermentation by chilling, racking or SO2: control house style, avoid risk of refermentation

298
Q

Tokaji Aszú Requirements

A

Base wine requirements: 12.08% ABV (usually around 15%)
Grape varieties and level of botrytis are freely chosen for base wine
Minimum 18 months in oak, Hungarian 136 l gönci, 300-500 l now used
traditional clear 500 ml bottle required
2013: minimum now 5 puttonyos 120g/l, 6 puttonyos 150g/l

299
Q

Eszencia

A

Syrupy free-run juice, can take years to ferment (less than 5% ABV)
Min. 450 g/l, full body + long aging

300
Q

Late Harvest

A

Style similar to other regions (no paste maceration)
Less botrytized, lighter body and less concentrated
Min. 45 g/l, typically 90 to 110 g/l
Oak aging not required, stainless steel for fruit common
12 to 16 months after harvest for release

301
Q

Szamorodni

A

Polish ‘as it comes’: whole mixed bunches
édes or száraz (ripeness or botrytis level determines this)
Sweeter style (édes) is more common
Sugar levels same as late harvest
2016: law changed, now 6 months oak only
Increased focus (more ‘authentic’ than Late Harvest)
Similar quality to aszú, same bottle, but fresher
száraz has flor yeast: 10 years, no topping up - nutty apple

302
Q

Tokaji dry wine

A

Move towards dry wine: 3x in past 5 years
Approach: healthy grapes, higher and windier sites, open canopies and treatments to prevent rot
First wave: MLF, very ripe, long oak aging
Now: lighter bodied, varietal + terroir or Dülö single-vineyard
Kabar used in addition to others (mostly Furmint)
85% required for varietal labeling

303
Q

Tokaj Wine Law

A

Hungary joined EU in 2004
Tokaji PDO has sub-villages, estates and vineyards
Bottling in region as of 2013 vintage
Zempléni PGI: other grapes, international and high yield

304
Q

Tokaj Business

A

Increasing vineyards as dry production expands, but half unused
1 to 2 ha avg. holdings, growers have producer contracts
Grand Tokaj: 2,000 growers, 35% of region’s wines (state-owned)
170,000 hl avg., 10% aszú, 21% dry wines
Large volumes of semi-sweet inexpensive
40% exports, Eastern Europe, China, France, UK and US

305
Q

Tokaj extras

A

Rock flour soil of decomposed pumice - low heat capacity, Oremus vineyard rhyolitic soils, Mandolás has 50% wood (Hungarian oak, Quercus frainetto)

No acifidication or added sugar as of 2015

Forditás: historic wine from must and already used paste

Disznókö AXA: also vineyard
Royal Tokaj has Mézes Maly first growth on loess soils
Oremus uses 136-l gönc and 220-l Szerednye (gönci hordó)
Late harvest = késöi szüret

306
Q

Germany Overview

A

23% of vineyard area is Riesling
Germany is world’s largest Riesling producer
Reputation for medium-sweet cheap wines: 60% of exports in 80s
Laws based on must weight introduced in 1830s
Flurbereinigung: Consolidation of parcels, building access roads for mechanization
5th German wine law of 1971 lays out labeling and classification
Production still dominated by bulk wine, but quality increasing

307
Q

Germany Business

A

100,000 ha of vines, 9 million hL production
16,000 growers, 50% own 3 or less ha, flatter area holdings increasing
Number of growers has reduced 20% since 2010 (unsustainable prices)
Wine estates grow and make best wines, 5 ha - 100 ha
Generation Riesling, 2005
Weinkellerei merchant houses buy grapes
Coops have long tradition in Germany, 30% of total vineyards (3/4 in Baden-Württemberg)

308
Q

Germany Sales

A

Domestic consumption important, 20 milllion hl (14-15 million hl imported)
10% of production (1 million hl) exported, this has halved but price is now 300 per hl
Markets: US, Netherlands, UK, Norway and Sweden (US and Norway high value)
Deutsches Weininstitut promotes quality and sale, Riesling Weeks for global promotion

309
Q

Germany Environment

A

Cool continental, around 49-50 N latitude
Rhine River and tributaries for heat radiation, extending growing season
Rainfall of 500-800 mm, mostly in summer (fungus, dilution and hail)
Long dry autumns prolong season, morning mist for botrytis
Low altitudes (mostly below 200 m), mountains protect from wind/rain

310
Q

Germany Soils

A

Mosel + Ahr: Dark colored slate stores heat, radiates during night
Calcareous soils for Spätburgunder, Weissburgunder + Chardonnay (Baden, Pfalz, Rheinhessen), Silvaner (Franken)
Clay soils for Grauburgunder
Erosion is a problem on slopes, winching soil/rocks necessary

311
Q

Germany Vineyard

A

Yields average 100 hl/ha: max. 150 hl/ha for Deutscher Wein, 105 hl/ha for Qualitätswein
Vintage variation signification, reduced by climate change + technology
Clonal selection, summer pruning, green harvesting and selected hand harvesting
Individual stakes with tied canes are traditional (labor intensive)
Now single/double cane/VSP and Pendelbogen for arched flow of sap
Organic and biodynamic not typical, spray needed (helicopter in Mosel)
9% of vineyards are certified organic, many are sustainable
Caterpillar tractors, high labor even on flat sites
Beerenauslese or higher must be hand-harvested for healthy fruit

312
Q

Germany Winemaking

A

Experimentation with lees/oak (Grau/Weissburgunder)
Enrichment common, not allowed for Prädikatswein (EU Zone A, up to 3% ABV)
Baden is Zone B, up to 2% ABV
De-acifidication permitted, acidification in hottest years
Casks: Mosel Fuder 1,000 L, Rhine Stück 1,200 L - German oak from Pfalz
New oak used for grapes other than Riesling
Süssreserve was added in 60s and 70s after fermentation (same region + quality level grapes) - contains no alcohol or little
Now fermentation is stopped by SO2, racking or filtering
RCGM only allowed for Deutscher Wein
Shift towards trocken or halbtrocken
Thermovinification used for red wines, fermented off skins
Rosé is 11% of domestic sales, inexpensive and youthful

313
Q

Riesling

A

(23,000 ha)
Late budding + thick wood (frost resistant), but late ripening (needs long season)
Plantings fell in 70s, now with better techniques rising again
Botrytis and high sugar make it good for sweet wines
White flowers, honeysuckle, with age toast, honey and petrol
Only 3 Riesling clones are authorized in Alsace (49, 1089, 1091), more than 60 in Germany

314
Q

Other German Grapes

A

Müller-Thurgau (11,000 ha)
a.k.a. Rivaner, German cross, earlier ripening + high yielding
Medium acidity, less structure but simple floral wines

Spätburgunder (11.5% of plantings)
Growth 3x in recent years, warm areas like Baden
Clones, canopy management + careful harvest date planning for balance
Whole bunch fermentation adds tannins without oak
Less new oak, larger oak than 10-20 years ago
Mariafeld clones for loose berries (botrytis resistance) - Freiberg, Geisenheim

Dornfelder
German cross, growth over past 30 years (7,500 ha)
Deep color, high acidity, fruity and floral sour cherry + blackberry
Rheinhessen and Pfalz = most planted black variety
Crossing w/grandparents including Pinot Noir Précoce + Blaufränkisch

Silvaner
Chlorosis and mildew
Plantings dropped by 1/2 since 1980, now stable: lower acidity and less aromatic
Franken: dry, medium body, medium/medium(+) acidity and earthy note
Würzburger Stein vineyard

Grauburgunder: More popular since 1990s, Rheinhessen, Pfalz + Baden
Heavier soils, medium acidity + stone fruit/tropical, dried fruit and honey
Full bodied sweet wines labelled as Ruländer

Weissburgunder: Medium(+) acidity, citrus and stone fruit

Chardonnay permitted since 1990, oak aging south Pfalz or Baden (Kaiserstuhl)

315
Q

Germany Minor Grapes

A

Portugieser, Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier), Trollinger (Schiava), Lemberger (Blaufränkisch): Easy drinking, Württemberg - now Lemberger producing quality

Müller-Thurgau developed in 1990s for earlier ripening
Scheurebe: full body, ripe grapefruit and peach, less acid than Riesling (can be sweet)
Kerner: Quality wines, even Prädikat level, high acidity and floral

316
Q

Deutscher Wein/Landwein

A 
Deutscher Wein (Tafelwein) 
Grown in Germany, between 8.5% and 15% ABV, any style

Landwein
PGI wine, introduced 1982 - 85% from Landwein region, same ABV as Deutscher Wein
Usually only trocken or halbtrocken
4% of production together with Deutscher Wein

317
Q

Qualitätswein

A

PDO: 13 quality regions (Anbaugebiete), name must go on label
min. ABV 7% (sweeter wines allowed), no max. - enrichment permitted
VDP using “Qualitätswein trocken” and Prädikatswein only for sweet
- Lab analysis, blind tasting - Amtliche Prüfungsnummer (10-12 digits)
- Where and when tasted, vineyard location, lot number

318
Q

Prädikatswein

A

Also PDO, one of 40 Bereiche (do not need to be stated)
No enrichment, any variety allowed (usually Riesling)
Usually 1/2 production of Qualitätswein, but can be equal

319
Q

Kabinett

A

Dry to medium-sweet, 7-12% ABV

Light-bodied, highest acidity (Riesling green/citrus)

320
Q

Spätlese

A

Dry to medium-sweet, min. 7% ABV

Harvested two weeks later, fuller body + higher alcohol

321
Q

Auslese

A

Dry to sweet, min. 7% ABV
Hand-harvesting not mandatory (hand sorting in winery also)
Honeyed, sometimes botrytis
Other sweetness terms often used on label

322
Q

Beerenauslese

A

Always sweet, min. 5.5% ABV
Must be hand-harvested, individually selected berries
Long slow fermentation, botrytis typical but not required
Ripe and dried stone fruit for Riesling
Only produced in botrytis years, labor-intensive and expensive

323
Q

Eiswein

A

Same must weights as BA, picked at temps below -7C
Category created in 1982, harvest from Dec.-Feb.
Grapes must be pressed while frozen
No botrytis, lots of crop lost to disease/predators (sheets)
- Pure peach and grapefruit flavors, premium price

324
Q

Trockenbeerenauslese

A

High must weight, botrytis
Raisin-like grapes, high acidity, rarely above 8% ABV
Very low yields, highly expensive

325
Q

German sweetness

A
  • trocken (up to 4 g/l or up to 9 g/l if acidity is <2g/l lower)
  • halbtrocken/feinherb (4-12g/l, up to 18 g/l if acidity is <10g/l lower)
  • lieblich (12-45 g/l residual sugar)
  • süss (>45 g/l sugar)

Baden 65% trocken wines, Mosel 30% trocken
Feinherb is not legally defined, can be sweeter than halbtrocken

Mosel: Goldkapsel means botrytis, longer capsule means higher concentration

326
Q

Einzellage

A

Einzellagen: Vineyard sites, avg. 38 ha (2,658 in total) - from 1 ha to >200 ha
Grosslagen: Collective vineyards, 600-1,800 ha, 167 registered
(only for Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein)

Rheinland-Pfalz (Ahr, Mosel, Nahe, Pfalz and rheinhessen) allows individual plots to be added to name

327
Q

Liebfraumilch

A

medium-dry Qualitätswein, >18 g/l sugar, 70% Riesling, Silvaner, Müller-Thurgau and Kerner: most come from Rheinhessen, Pfalz (majority), Rheingau or Nahe

328
Q

VDP

A

founded 1910, originally for Mosel, Pfalz, Rheingau and Rheinhessen
First goal was Naturweine without enrichment (rejected in 1960s)
200 members with 5% of vineyard area (3% wine by volume, 7.5% by value)
More than half is Riesling, less than 1/4 is exported
Stricter yields, higher must weights, traditional regional grapes
Members audited every five years, 1/5th are sustainable
Prädikat is only for sweet wines
Four-tier system tinkered in 2012 (lobbying for German law protection)

329
Q

Gutswein/Ortswein

A

VDP Gutswein: Regional wines, generic: yield 75 hl/ha

VDP Ortswein: Village wines, typical varieties from region: yield 75 hl/ha

330
Q

VDP Erste Lage

A

Premier Cru, local association approves grapes for site

  • Yield 60 hl/ha, hand harvesting and must weights of Spatlese status
  • Traditional winemaking techniques
  • Village and vineyard name must appear on label
331
Q

VDP Grosse Lage

A

Grand cru, best parcels: long aging potential, determined by association

  • Yield 50 hl/ha, more restricted varieties
  • Riesling allowed everywhere (only botrytised in Ahr)
  • Spätburgunder allowed except for Mosel and Nahe
  • Dry whites: release 1 September year after harvest
  • Reds: 12 months oak aging, 1st September year after aging
  • Sweet Prädikat, 1 May year after harvest

Grosses Gewächs GG: Dry Grosse lage, only vineyard name on label

332
Q

Rheingau Charta

A

1984, promotes best dry wines from Rheingau

- Erstes Gewächs used for best site Riesling or Spätburgunder
- Hand harvest, lower yields, dry with Spätlese must weight
- 1999: joined VDP, Erstes Gewächs can now be GG
333
Q

Rheinhessen

A

Almost 1/4 of German vineyards, highest yields
Warm and dry, protected by Hunsrück and Taunus mountains
Fertile valley floors (Liebfraumilch started in Worms)
71% of plantings are white: Riesling, Müller-Thurgau, Silvaner and Burgunders
Dornfelder most planted black (double Spätburgunder)
Bulk production, merchant houses (small estates for quality)
Rheinterrase: West bank near Nierstein/Oppenheim, steep slopes
- Roter Hang - Rotliegenden iron soil w/slate, clay and sandstone (smoky) - hematite mudstone
Wein vom Roten Hang association - Niersteiner Hipping
Wonnegau region: quality Riesling and Spätburgunder
Gunderloch (Rheinterrasse), Weingut Keller (Worms)
Liebfrauenstift-Kirchenstück vineyard
Maxime Herkunft Rheinhessen - 70 growers

334
Q

Pfalz

A

Haardt mountain rain shadow, dry and drought concern
Nearly as much production as Rheinhessen, 65% white varieties
Riesling is 1/4 of plantings, more full bodied and ripe fruit
Dornfelder most planted black (second overall)
Mittelhaardt: Bad Dürckheim, Wachenheim, Forst, Deidesheim in north
Deidesheim almost all Grosse Lage (Mäushöhle)
Forst soils: water-retentive clay, black basalt
S/SE slopes in foothills, varied soil (limestone/sandstone/basalt/clay)
Südliche Weinstrasse: fertile sandstone soils for bulk production, Knipser Bros Pinot Noir
- Now quality Burgunders (dominated by pinots due to politics)
Dr. Bürklin-Wolf (Forster Pechstein GG)
Winzerverein Deidesheim

335
Q

Baden

A

Main area opposite Alsace, warm and sunny
Spätburgunder is most planted variety, but 59% of wines are white
Kaiserstuhl: Steep extinct volcano, full body, high alcohol, smoky fruit
Ortenau, or calcareous Tuniberg and Breisgau: more acidity, delicate fruit
Müller-Thurgau popular (inexpensive blends), quality Burgunders + Chardonnay
Co-ops 75% of production Badischer Winzerkeller in Breisach

1/2 of Germany’s Pinot Noir (35% of region)
Franz Keller makes Pinot/Chardonnay w/Burgundian clones

336
Q

Württemberg

A

Light fruity reds for domestic consumption
Main co-op is Möglingen, smaller estates gaining ground on terraced Neckar
68% black grapes, warm summer: Trollinger, Lemberger and Schwarzriesling
Fuller bodied examples with oak aging now produced
Riesling is half of whites
Trollinger has 20% of grapes
Fellbacher Lämmler: top site for Lemberger, Rainer Schnaitmann
Rainer Schnaittmann, Württembergische Weingärtner

337
Q

Mosel

A

90% white, 60% Riesling
Hills for sun exposure, light reflected from river, dark colored slate
Middle Mosel is largest + best: Bernkasteler Doctor, Piesporter Goldtröpfchen, Wehlener Sonnenuhr, Graacher Himmelreich, Ürziger Würzgarten
- Pale color, light body, higher acidity, floral
- Reputation is for sweet Kabinett/Spätlese/Auslese
- Eiswein usually possible
- Slate colors (grey, blue, brown, red) make a difference
Some flatter sites (near Piesport) for inexpensive Mü-Thu
Winninger Uhlen gU 2018 for Roth Lay, Blaufusser Lay, Uhlen Laubach
Obermosel limestone for Grau/Weissburgunder and Elbling
Weingut Hain, Piesporter Goldtröpfchen (deep clay-like slate)
Bernkastel is flinty, Wehlener is shallow slate (finer), Graach is earthier
Moselland co-op makes 20% of region’s wine (world’s largest)
Egon Müller, Markus Molitor
Major companies: F.W. Langguth (Erben + Blue Nun)
Saar and Ruwer valleys also in region, even colder (Scharzhofberg)

338
Q

Franken

A

W-shaped area, S slopes of Main and tributaries - most continental
Hazard: spring frost
82% white grapes, Müller-Thurgau + Silvaner
Silvaner: Early budding and ripening (spring frost), gets best sites
S+SE slopes around town of Würzburg, full bodied, floral + wet stone
In west, sandstone terraces for Spätburgunder (Weingut Rudolf Fürst)
Würzburger Stein (oldest vineyard) has high fossil content
Rudolf Fürst Hundsrück Spatbürgunder GG
Bocksbeutel round bottle with short neck, mostly local consumption
Horst Sauer, Bürgerspital

339
Q

Nahe

A

Mostly small scatted estates: variety of soils/conditions
Hunsrück Mountains protect for mild temps, low rainfall
75% white wines, 30% Riesling - riper fruit than Mosel
East: Schlossböckelheim + Bad Kreuznach have warmest, sunlight - steep slopes
Slate and sandstone soils
Western region harvest a couple weeks later
Weingut Dönnhof, Emrich Schönleber
Fertile flat soils for Müller-Thurgau
Dornfelder most planted black (red grapes not even 1/4)

Monzinger Frühlingsplätzchen, Emrich-Schönleber (damp red soils, broad valley)
Oberhauser Brücke - monopole of Dönnhoff directly on Nahe River

340
Q

Rheingau

A

Wiesbaden to Lorchhausen, also Hochheim
South aspect, protection from northerly winds by Taunus mountains
Full body, riper fruit, wider Rhein (1km) - less frost risk, more botrytis
Quality production: Rüdesheim, Geisenheim, Johannisberg, Erbach
Mid slopes for dry wines (some river influence but no fungal disease)
Sand, loam and loss in east (Hochheim), sandstone and slate in west
86% white wines, 78% Riesling: usually dry, but also sweet
Spätburgunder near Assmannshausen (S/SW Höllenberg)
Schloss Vollrads, Schloss Johannisberg

Hochheim in east (deeper sand/loam/loess soil), Hölle vineyard Künstler winery
Berg Schlossberg in Rüdesheim (steepest)
Soils include slate, quartzite, marl
12% Spätburgunder (Höllenberg in Assmanshausen, Weingut Krone slate soils)

341
Q

Ahr

A

Just a few hundred hectares
Narrow sheltered valley, steep south slopes, dark slate and greywacke sandstone
83% black grapes - traditionally sweet and late harvest, now oaky Spätburgunder
3/4 of wines produced by co=ops
Mayschoss formed 1868, oldest in world
Mayschoss-Altenahr Winzergenossenschaft

65% Pinot Noir (some Frühburgunder)
Meyer-Näckel “Blauschiefer” Pinot Noir

342
Q

Germany extras

A

Oechsle limit ranges: in Rheingau, 95-125-150 for Auslese, Beerenauslese, TBA
Bereich e.g. Mainviereck in Franken
Silvaner can be Grosse Lage in Franken
Chardonnay can be Grosse Lage in Baden
Scheurebe can be Erste Lage in Pfalz for sweet wines

343
Q

Rhone red grapes

A

Syrah: Vigorous, tying back, mites, botrytis, Syrah decline, reductive
Grenache Noir: High yield, short prune, low fertility, coulure, downy, botrytis, blight
Mourvèdre: Mites, leafhoppers, sour rot, reductive, drought (calcareous), short prune
Cinsaut: Esca, eutypa, chlorosis, mites, grape moths, drought/heat resistant
Carignan: Powdery mildew, grape moths, stems firmly attached

344
Q

Rhone white grapes

A

Viognier: Early budding, frost+wind, coulure, rapidly gains sugar (harvest time)
Marsanne: Late budding, vigorous, high yield, powdery mildew, mites, botrytis
Roussanne: Late budding, wind, coulure, powdery mildew, mites, botrytis
Grenache Blanc: Early budding, wind resistant – same hazards as Grenache Noir
Clairette: Vigorous (likes dry, low fertility soils): short pruning, upright, oxidation
Bourbolenc: Late ripening, loose bunches/thick skins = resistance to botrytis

345
Q

Spain Business

A

Cooperatives still dominate, Martin Codax
Also negociants J. García Carríon (Don Simón, Pata Negra)
Low consumption (1/2 exports): trend for higher quality DOs
Largest exporter (56% in bulk) w/21 million hl, lowest price/l
Investment market not picked up like France/Italy
France (24%) and Germany (17%) lead exports w/inexpensive wines
UK, US and China buy better wines
Foods and Wine from Spain is promotional body

346
Q

Rioja Environment

A

NW to SE along Ebro River, 64,000 ha (+50% in 30 years), 3 million hl, warm continental
Sierra de Cantabria protects from Atlantic, Sierra de la Demanda blocks central heat
Mediterranean influence in east up open Ebro Valley
Vintage variation means blending, climate change for higher vineyards

Rioja Alta: West of Logroño: continental w/maritime influence
Low altitude, alluvial soils, NW is cooler and wetter: calcareous clay
Southern area high altitude 700 m w/ferrous clay (Navarrete)

Rioja Alavesa: North of Ebro in Basque Country, calcareous clay
	Basque government subsidizes growers to have winemaking facilities

Rioja Oriental: East of Logroño, N+S Ebro: north is low altitude, flat, warm and dry
	south is 500-1000 m, cooler w/calcareous and ferrous clay
347
Q

Winemaking Rhone Cru

A

Concrete vats for fermentation (or steel/wood), small/large wood for maturation
Grenache Noir oxidizes/loses color, while Syrah needs pumping over and oak
Cru level: Hand harvest, small crates, destem, chill, 1-3 days cold soak or whole bunches
Cultured or ambient yeasts, warm temps for extraction, 20-30 days on skins
12-24 months maturation, 20-30% new – large for G, small for S + M

348
Q

Winemaking Rhone Inexpensive/White

A

Inexpensive: Machine harvest (or hand+carbonic), flash détente/thermovinification
Cultured yeast for reliable ferment, mid-range ferment (avoid high extraction)
Short maceration times, several months in stainless steel before bottling
Rosé: Short maceration (press after 12-48 hours on skins), then fermentation as white
Aging in large oak, concrete or steel: saignée but idea is only to make rosé
White: Mid-range temps for fruit, MLF avoided, large oak/steel
Batonnage avoided because varieties are fuller bodied (but Gripa does it)

349
Q

Rioja Grapes

A

90% black, of which 88% Tempranillo + 8% Garnacha (used to be equal)
High-yielding Tempranillo planted in Rioja Oriental (best in higher cool clay sites)
Late-budding, late-ripening Viura needs warm and dry sites (70% of whites)
Tempranillo Blanco, permitted mutation w/high acidity+lemon/grapefruit
Malvasia (flavor) and Garnacha Blanca (acidity) in mid/premium wines
Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc in cheap blends or monovarietal

350
Q

Rioja Winemaking

A

Crianza/Reserva/Gran Reserva require 225 L barriques (mushroom, meat, vanilla)
Vinos de autor, unlabeled wine trend 90s: low yields, ripe fruit and French oak
Trend: character and quality of grapes w/earlier harvest, gentle extraction, amphora
Parcel blending is typical b/c of cooperatives and small holdings
Artadi El Pison single-vineyard Tempranillo
New French oak introduced by Marqués de Cáceres in 1970

White wines: Viura is more neutral than other varieties
premium oaked (now less oxidative), Malvasia used 10% Tondonia
med(+)body/acidity, citrus, smoke and nuts – usually good/v. good
351
Q

Rioja Laws

A

Previously, sub-zones/villages/vineyards could not be on label
Discontent, Artadi leaves 2015, ABRA wants Viñedos de Alava so in 2018:
Vino de Zona: Single named sub-zone (15% from adjacent sourced for 10 years)
Winemaking, maturation and bottling in zone, allowed on label
Vino de Municipio: From municipality (adjacent rule), production as well
(in Burgundy, wines from different communes are in same winery)
Viñedo Singular: One vineyard/estate, production in winery
10-year ownership, 35-year vineyards, max. yields 20% less, hand harvest
Sustainability, pruning, traceability, tasting panel (1x post-ferment, 1x release)
5,000 kg/hectare for reds or 32.5 hl/ha

352
Q

Rioja Business

A

Small plots (50% <1ha, 75%<2ha), 15,000 growers – 40% to co-ops who sell to negociants but also some part under their own brand
Some very large producers, with top 10 having 40% of region’s sales, yet 80% have just 12%
Producers also typically are merchants w/some vineyards, buying grapes and wine
Sales: domestic market steady, export increasing (37%, UK, Germany and USA)
In Spain people like Crianza, abroad it’s Reserva and Gran Reserva, cheap wines everywhere
White and rosé growing in exports (small base)
Rioja prices are high for Spain but low for Europe – small investment market, no super-premium
Why so cheap? Cheap grape prices in flat zones, cheap land

353
Q

Rioja Organizations

A

Consejo Regulador: market, PR companies for Rioja tastings (trade/consumers)
The message is: Value for money and diversity (tourism manual for wineries)
Bodegas Familiares de Rioja advocate for small producers (22,500 l stockholdings)
Rioja’n’Roll: first-generation single-vineyard producers for new perspective (Artuke)

354
Q

CATALUNYA

A

Mediterranean w/altitude influence inland, international varieties more common
11 DOs, one DOQ – Vi de Finca for great single-estate wine – min. market time, max. yield

CATALUNYA DO: Anywhere in Comunidad (Torres Viña Sol), 2001 This gives: freedom of style/place, recognition on export market (Torres lobbied)
355
Q

Penedes DO

A

From Mediterranean to inland mountains, warm Mediterranean – 500 mm
Irrigation permitted for drought stress but authorization required
Loamy soil w/calcareous (stores enough water) – trellising common, bush also
80% white: Xarel-lo, Macabeo, Parellada for Cava and still white
Others – Chardonnay, Moscatel, Gewurztraminer, Riesling, Sauv Blanc
Merlot (most planted black), Cab, Tempranillo, Pinot, Syrah

Penedès Marìtim: Sea to coastal hills, warm w/o extremes – full Monastrell
Inexpensive local whites
Penedès Central: Flat plains (Pre-Coastal Depression) – 500 m cooling
Cava grapes, Merlot, Cab, Tempranillo, Chardonnay
Penedès Superior: Inland mountains (Montserrat to Montmell), 500-800m (frost)
Chardonnay/Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Gewurztraminer + Pinot Noir
Torres: temp control, clean and fruity – oak for premium reds/Chardonnay
Law: 10 sub-zones introduced, to label must be 100% local and organic (Alts d’Ancosa)
30% export: Germany, Canada, Switzerland, China, USA
90% of domestic sales are in Catalunya (Barcelona hub for consumers, tourists)

356
Q

Priorat DOQ overview

A

Warm continental – Serra de Montsant + Serra de Llaberia, 500-600 mm rain
High diurnal range, cold winters – irrigation permitted for dry years + new vines 2,000 ha (less than pre-phylloxera) – Carthusian monks Scala Dei 12th century
Difficult access, topography challenging
1989: Clos Mogador, Erasmus (Garnacha+Syrah), Dofí
Siurana River valley, 100-750 m slops, llicorella quartz slopes (costers) 5-60 gradient
Narrow terraces: reduce erosion, retain water – manual labor
Llicorella reflects light, poor nutrients, some clay, slate bedrock allows roots
Max. yield 39 hl/ha, averages only 5-6 hl/ha
Garnacha + Cariñena are 2/3 of black plantings together – Cariñena harsh + warm
Bordeaux grapes/Syrah popularity falling, 6% white (Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo)

357
Q

Priorat Winemaking

A

Traditional old basket press, large oak vats for fermentation
Modern: stainless steel, optical sorting machines
Cultured yeast typical (high alcohol means wild yeast struggle)
1-2 years of French oak common, high alcohol and med(+) acidity

358
Q

Priorat Law

A

Law: Vi de Vila – One of 12 sub-zones, named plus ‘Vi de Vila’ - Poboleda
Vi de Paratge ¬-¬¬ Like lieu-dit, 459 sites, terrain/geology/climate (La Baixada Palacios)
Vinya Classificada – Cru, single vineyard of high quality (Clos Mogador)
Gran Vinya Classificada ¬ - Grand cru, single vineyard owned or rented 7 years
Min. 90% Garnacha+Cariñena, yield, 35 vine age, ‘recognition brand 5 years’
60% G+C for other categories
‘Old vines’ for 75 years old or planted before 1945

359
Q

Spain Law

A

DO (PDO) = 70 in Spain, DOCa just Rioja/Priorat (eligible after DO for 10 years)
estate bottled, 10 years, quality restrictions, external tasting assessment and audit
Vino de Pago: estate wines, Castilla La Mancha (Dominio de Valdepusa)
Rules: must be own grapes, vinified/matured on estate (in PDO category)
Vino de la Tierra: PGI wines

Consejo Regulador: sets yield, variety, irrigation, winemaking, packaging
DOCa and most Dos bottle in region (La Mancha can be bulk)

360
Q

Spain Winemaking

A

Barrels max. 330 L for national labeling
Aging labels criticism: too specific, not specific enough
-No quality requirements, age/origin of oak, and only min. age (might be more)
Why not use terms? Larger barrels, less than min. time, or no marketing benefit
Common in Ribera del Duero + Rioja, less common in Bierzo + Priorat
Roble for some oak, joven for no/little oak
Rosado classically deep, now trend for pale increasing (Provence) – legally allowed

361
Q

Spain History

A

Mid-19th exile of Marques de Murrieta and Marques de Riscal to Bordeaux
Phylloxera hits France, wineries founded in Haro (railroad) as substitute
Spain then hit in early 20th century, production falls
Rioja Wine Exporters’ Syndicate founded 1907 for authenticity
Rioja has first Consejo Regulador in 1926
Under Franco, mainly high-volume cooperatives
Miguel Torres studies in France, plants French/German varieties: trellising/temp control
Accession to EU: investment, tanks, temp. control
Irrigation legalized in 1996: production levels increase greatly
Research, investment, education and travel to other countries (Erasmus)
Trends: indigenous grapes, traditional techniques, restoring abandoned vineyards

362
Q

Montsant

A

Ring around Priorat, mostly south in flatter lower Ebro, more Mediterranean
Shelter of Serra de Llaberia (less extreme), north has 300-700 m and cool temps
Limestone (Ulldemolins) in north/east, clay sand, some llicorella in south (granite Falset)
Work is easier, yields higher, soils more fertile than Priorat: trellis for machine, also bush
2/3 Garnacha and Cariñena, then Tempranillo, Syrah, Merlot, Cabernet – blends typical
Celler de Capçanes – La Nit de les Garnatxes soil line – Clay, Limestone, Slate
Majority co-ops, cheaper land producers from Priorat,
45% export: Germany, US, France, Switzerland, UK

363
Q

Costers del Segre

A

Continental, low rainfall (400mm), 7 non-contiguous zones, 1988
4,000 ha (1/2 Raimat of Raventós/Codorníu in early 1900s) – Raimat, Pallars in Pyrenees
Area had saline soils (irrigation channels installed), Raimat launched 1978
200-700m, Cava at altitude, black grapes lower
Soils are sandy, free-draining, irrigation necessary
Many grapes: cava, chardonnay, garnacha blanca, sauvignon
Garnacha, tempranillo, cab sauvignon, merlot – blends common for easy drinking
40 wineries, Castell d’Encus – Quest Bordeaux, Ekam Riesling/Albariño
Sustainability program has 40% of wineries, 70% of production (S.E.E.)

364
Q

Rias Baixas

A

Moderate maritime, 1,700 mm rain throughout year
Soils: sandy over granite bedrock, free-draining
Parral trellises w/granite supports (humidity), crops grown under
After Phylloxera: hybrids+Palomino, tiny plots
Then indigenous grape incentives in 70s and 80s, now:
4,000 ha, >5,000 growers, 170 wineries, 250,000 hl/year (growth)
Albariño 95% of production, thick skin (resistance)+early-mid ripening, med body
Loureira: Early ripening, med(+) acidity, herbal note w/citrus, floral
Treixadura: Mid-ripening, low acidity, apple/peach
Caiño Blanco: Late-ripening, high acidity, citrus
Sousón (Vinhão), smaller-berried in Spain and Caiño Tinto – 1%
Zones: Val do Salnés on coast, coldest+oldest+largest
O Rosal on Miño near Atlantic, Condado do Tea inland, warm easy drinking
Ribeira do Ulla newest (inex), Soutomaior smallest
Winemaking: protective, few hours skin contact for flavor/texture, at least partial MLF
Sobre lias: 1 to 2 years for premium, no battonage (oxygen)
Oak fermentation (1583 Fefiñanes)
Business: ¼ exports, increasing: USA + UK, good/v. good, mid/premium

365
Q

Ribeiro

A

East of Rias Baixas, more sheltered, mostly white wines
Treixadura most planted, monovarietal or blends
Oak fermentation/maturation for premium wines

366
Q

Ribeira Sacra

A

River Miño/River Sil valley – warm continental, maritime influence
Highly steep w/different altitudes and stony slopes for drainage/heat
Mencia: med body+tannins, med(+) acidity, cherry/raspberry
Dominio do Bibei, Lacima (Mencía w/Brancellao)

367
Q

Valdeorras

A

East on River Sil, warm continental, 700-1000 mm rain
Altitudes at 300 m, varied soils including slate and granite
Godello, good/v. good, premium in oak– some Mencia but minor

368
Q

Monterrei

A

On Portuguese border, Sierra da Larouca to west – low rainfall, continental
Riper Mencia, fruity Godello – inexpensive bulk and some good wine
Quinta de Muradella: Alanda Tinto (Mencia/Bastardo/Garnacha)

369
Q

Bierzo

A

Álvaro Palacios and Ricardo Pérez attracted to slate slopes in late 90s
Contintental (warmer summers), open on west for maritime influence
Vintage variation high, 75% Mencia (early/mid-ripening, loses acidity)
Red wines must be min. 70% Mencía, Alicante Bouschet rest (only 2% of plantings)
Zones: 1) Fertile flat plains of silty loam, med(-)body/tannin w/red fruit (good/mid)
2) Well-draining slate slopes, 500-850 m (limit vigor) (v.good/out, mid/prem)
Bush vines (80% older than 60) – low yields and high production cost
Careful use of oak, Descendientes de J. Palacios + Raul Pérez (75 wineries total)
3,000 ha – 2,000 growers – 100,000 hl – half of growers work with coops
Village/vineyard classifications 2017, Merenzao allowed 2019 (yield ~20%
less)
J. Palacios Villa de Corullón, 60-100 year vines at 600-1000 m
San Juan de Paluezas village has limestone
Estaladiña and Merenzao now authorized, Garnacha Tintorera can be varietal

370
Q

Toro

A

Duero River, warm continental w/altitude 620-750 m, sandy soils, spring frost
Tinta de Toro – adapted form of Tempranillo (separate variety?), thicker skins
Reds min. 75% Tinta de Toro, rest Garnacha
Rosé from TT+G, white from Verdejo+Malvasía also
No irrigation between June+harvest
Low density bush vines (max. 2700/ha), 1/5 older than 50
Full body, high alcohol, med(+)/high tannin, blackberry/blueberry
West has cooler sites at higher altitude (or north aspects)
Consejo Regulador says alc. Max is 15%, Tinto Roble if blended w/Garnacha
Carbonic maceration for cheap, French+American oak premium, Numanthia LVMH
Remote from cities/ports (challenge), investors coming from R del D (cheap land)
About 50 wineries, 96,000 hl of wine, acc./good and good/outstanding

371
Q

Ribera del Duero

A

Slightly hotter than Toro+Rueda, 750-1000m, high cool east
Spring/fall frost shortens season: heaters, spray vines, helicopters
Low rain of 400-600 mm, irrigation out of growing season, sand/clay/limestone
Tinto Fino/Tinta del País – different sites for balance/complexity/consistency
½ bush vines, ¼ older than 50 – holdings less than 1 ha, trellises common
Winemaking: whites allowed 2019, Albillo Mayor 75% (Dominio del Pidio)
Reds 75% Tinto Fino, w/Cab Sauvignon, Merlot, Malbec, Garnacha, Albillo
100% Tempranillo w/50-100% new French oak: full body, ripe blackberry/plum
Trend for less extraction, less maceration after fermentation
(Pingus uses 20,000 l vats, plan is for 50% oak) La Horra, Barroso
Atauta village in high east has old vines
Crianza most common, Gran Reserva rare, most wine has no age category
600,000-700,000 hl, 20% export: Switzerland, Mexico, US, Germany, China
Good to outstanding, mid-priced to premium

372
Q

Rueda

A

Warm continental, low rainfall, 700-800 m altitude
Used to be oxidative fortified wine until Marques de Riscal invested, 1970s (Petaluma)
Limestone bedrock, sandy clay w/topsoil of stone/sand (free-draining, low organic)
Verdejo: drought tolerant, med/med(+) acidity, apple/peach/fennel
Sauvignon Blanc: blend or monovarietal, 85% for varietal labeling (100% common)
VSP trellising, night harvest, old bush vines 10% of planting
Protective steel, cultured yeasts (promote esters) – lees w/stirring for months to year
Some oak-fermented very good
Blends labeled as DO Rueda (Often DO Rueda-Verdejo), red and rosé Tempranillo
Quality good-very good, Ossian, Lurton – José Pariente Cuvée Especial clay cement eggs

373
Q

Castilla y Leon VT

A

On meseta, protection from Atlantic – continental

Many varieties, producers outside DOs or with different style – only 9,000 ha

374
Q

Valencia DO

A

500,000 hl/year, 2 separate zones
Local coops, easy drinking, acc./good and inexpensive
Smaller producers for good/v. good and mid-priced
450 mm, irrigation common, Turia River Valley, sea breezes
Alto Turia: Sistema Ibérico foothills, 700-1100 m, almost all white wine
Moscatel de Alejandría + Merseguera (mid budding, mid-late ripening)
Merseguera is low intensity, bitter almond when vigorous
Valentino: Warmer, 200-650 m, sea breezes
Garnacha Tintorera, Tempranillo, Cab Sauvignon, Monastrell, Merseguera
Clariano: South of Valencia, separate zone – similar to Valentino
Moscatel de Valencia: south of Turia/Valentino, sweet or vino de licor

375
Q

Utiel-Requena DO

A

34,000 ha, borders La Mancha, 750 m – 87% black
Bobal more than 70% of plantings, many older than 40 years
Mid-late budding and ripening, drought tolerant, high yield
Retains acidity, vigorous (short pruning), powdery mildew+botrytis
Uneven ripening makes grippy/firm tannins, acc/v. good + inex/mid
Deep color: blending in inexpensive, unconcentrated wines
Started out as rosé b/c of fruit and high acidity
Med(+)tannins/body, blackberry, black cherry, chocolate

376
Q

Alicante DO

A

9,000 ha, smallest (some Jumilla and Yecla grapes can use label)
Warm Mediterranean climate, very dry (250 mm rain) – good/v. good, mid priced
Monastrell 75% planted: late ripening, drought tolerant – mites, leafhoppers, sour rot
Vinalopó sub-zone is production center – from coast to 500 m Sierra de Salinas (A.M.B.)
Monastrell dominates here
Marina Alta coastal zone: humid breezes, 500 mm rain (double rest)
Moscatel de Alejandría, dry and sweet
Alicante DO rules: min. 80% Monastrell, then Garnacha Tintorera, Garnacha and Bobal
Usually full-bodied, dry, matured in American oak
Fondillón is unfortified sweet wine, min. 16% ABV, max. 40 g/l (medium sweet)
Late harvest Monastrell possible due to dry climate
Min. 10 years in oak (v. large 1,200 l typical)
Can be añada or solera (oxidized, dried fruit and nuts)

377
Q

Jumilla DO

A

25,000 ha, altitude 400-800 m, rainfall 250-300 mm
Plains/valleys between Alicante and La Mancha, warm continental
Monastrell 80% of plantings, historically inexpensive production
Phylloxera outbreak 1989: replanting and focus on quality
Higher-quality clones (369), vineyard management
Winemaking methods (earlier harvest/cool fermentation)
Full body, high alcohol, ripe blackberry/cherry, spice – med(+) acidity if good
Also permitted: Cencibel, Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, Cab/Merlot/Syrah/Petit V
These are blended to lower tannins
Rosés made from Monastrell, and some white wine
2,000 growers, 40 wineries: Bodegas El Nido, Casa Castillo
Majority exported (70%), USA is major market

378
Q

Yecla DO

A

6,000 ha, altitude 500-900 m, rainfall 300 mm, more Mediterranean
Soils are sand and limestone, one co-op La Purisima 60% of production, 95% exported
Good to v. good, inexpensive to mid-priced

379
Q

Castilla La Mancha

A

Land-locked meseta, hot continental climate

LA MANCHA: 158,000 ha (largest DO in Europe), 500-750 m meseta, low 300-400 mm
Limestone+chalk soil retain water, drip irrigation 40%
Bush vines 1,000/ha, trellised 3,000/ha
Airen 90,000 ha for neutral white, Brandy de Jerez
Cencibel: fruity wines, short oak contact (or aging labels)
15,000 growers, 250 wineries, majority are co-ops – Vino de Pago Casa de Blanco
Virgen de las Viñas: Spain’s largest co-op w/20,000 ha and 2,000 members
40% exported, bulk and bottle – Bottled exports to China growing, largest market 5 years
Germany, Russia and Netherlands are also markets
VALDEPEÑAS: South of La Mancha, hot/dry: fruity, soft Cencibel: good, inexpensive
VINO DE PAGO: Half of 18 in Spain are here: first Dominio de Valdepusa (Cab Sauvignon)
CASTILLA VT: Large area, similar climate, more grapes – inexpensive to mid-priced
380
Q

CARIÑENA/CAMPO DE BORJA/CALATAYUD DO

A

Warm continental, rain 450-500 mm – high-altitude plateaus, cold cierzo north wind
Campo de Borja: 350-700 m, Cariñena: 400-800 m, Calatayud: 500-900 m
Old Garnacha, mainly reds, rocky free-draining soils, spring frost, low pest pressure
Bush vines, low densities, Carignan being revived w/choice clones
High alcohol, med-full body, med tannins
Premium: quality of fruit, limited large oak: raspberry, plums, med(+)acidity/alcohol
Borsao co-op, 300 members in Campo de Borja

381
Q

Somantano DO

A

Warm continental, Pyrenees foothill: more rain and more evenly spread out
350-650 m, diurnal range + breezes from Pyrenees
Cabernet Sauvignon + Chardonnay, also Gewurztraminer
Viñas del Vero: largest producer, created by bank and owned by Gonzalez Byass
Mid-priced, good/very good wines: competition from same varieties
Bodega Pirineos reviving indigenous varieties: Moristel

382
Q

Navarra DO

A

: 11,000 ha – Mediterranean, Atlantic and Pyrenees influence
Five sub-regions: Tierra Estella, Valdizarbe, Baja Montaña, Ribera Alta, Ribera Baja
North is cooler and wetter, slopes (protection from Atlantic)
South is flatter, warmer and drier – Viña Zorzal in Ribera Baja, 100% Graciano
Deep-colored Garnacha rosé, then govt. funds program for Tempranillo in 70s
1980s: international grapes allowed: Cab Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay
Tempranillo monovarietal (most-planted), Cab and Merlot w/Tempranillo/Garnacha
Aging categories are common
French oak for Bordeaux grapes, American oak for Tempranillo
Chardonnay for whites: med/med(+) acidity, citrus and peach, oaked/unoaked
Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Sauvignon Blanc, Viura and Malvasia too
Is diversity a bonus? Should region focus on old bush garnacha (med+acidity in north)
Short skin maceration required for Navarra DO rosé, medium to deep color
Fermentation in steel, quick bottling: good/very good, inexpensive to mid-priced
Small holdings, growers sell to coops, producers include Lupier and Chivite

383
Q

Basque Country

A

Txakoli Getriako, Bizkaiko, Arabako: moderate maritime, 1600mm/year
(canopy ventilation, VSP are key)
Hondarrabi zuri white: high acidity, med(-)body, low alcohol, fresh apple/pear
All styles, lees/oak/bottle aging, hondarrabi beltza for reds
Gorka Izagirre 42 Zura, Hondarrabi Zerratia oak fermented

384
Q

Sierra de Gredos

A

Mountains west of Madrid without own DO: Vinos de Madrid DO, Mentrida DO, Cebreros DO or Castilla y León VT (Bruja de Rozas is Vinos de Madrid)
Quality from old-vine Grenache, 600-1200 m – continental, altitude for diurnal range
Lighter tannin, med(+)acidity, fresh fruit (style different than Aragon)
Sunny days can lead to high alcohol
Low intervention style, ambient yeast and low SO2
Albillo Real whites, floral and citrus, med/med(+) acidity, oak and skins
Good/v. good quality, mid-premium price

385
Q

Balearic Islands

A

95 km off coast, Mallorca has two DOs, others have VTs
Manto Negro (light color, high alc., red fruit)+Callet (med/med(+) acidity, med alc.)
Monastrell, Tempranillo, Malvasia, international varieties in blends
Binissalem DO, Pla I Llevant DO (Manto Negro in Binissalem), 4 Kilos 100% Callet

386
Q

Canary Islands

A

500 km south of Madeira, 28 N latitude: hot and tropical
Mountains w/vineyards up to 1,500 m for diurnal range and cooler days
Rough terrain means mechanization is impossible
No grafting needed, absence of phylloxera and sandy soils
Variety of aspects/altitudes allow for many grapes
Each island has its own DO (La Gomera, El Hierro etc.), Tenerife has 5
Listan Negro, Malvasía, Listan Blanco (Palomino), Marmajuelo, Negramoll
Listan Negro: light/med color, med tannin, raspberry and plum (carbonic common)
Valle de Orotava DO on Tenerife: vines twisted in ropes, trained on low wires up hills
Lanzarote: flat land w/volcanic ash cover, vines underground w/stone walls
Protection and moisture, low density and low yield: Malvasia dry/sweet
“hoyos”, El Grifo Malvasía Volcánica, Lías

Envinate Migan, Orotava
Valle de Güímar
Calima wind from Sahara
Lack of winter dormancy

387
Q

Côte Rotie AOC

A

Only red, single/double Guyot + échalas – 250 ha (had shrunk)
Manual labor, erosion (terraced stony slopes, poor nutrients): terrace repair
Guigal w/ La Mouline/La Landonne – v. good/outstanding, prem/super premium
Up to 20% Viognier, Syrah w/massal selection 3309: productive, color depth
10,000 vines/ha, 40 hl/ha – cofermentation, destemming + cold soak (stems increase)
Natural yeast (terroir), MLF in cask, either 225 l (Guigal) or demi-muid 500-600 l

388
Q

Condrieu AOC

A

100% Viognier, max. 41 hl/ha (S facing bend), 200 ha – acidic arzelle
CHATEAU-GRILLET AOC: 3.5 ha, started in 1830s, fashion returned 1980s
Stainless steel or large wood fermentation, MLF typical: 10-12 months lees w/writing

389
Q

St. Joseph AOC

A

30 mile long, expanded 1994: lieu-dit opposite Tain L’Hermitage
Debate: limit AOC only to hillsides for quality? Jean-Louis Chave, Domaine Gonon
90% red wine, 40 hl/ha, up to 10% M/R but not common, stainless steel/large oak

390
Q

Hermitage AOC

A

137 ha, named after Gaspard de Stérimberg: 1/3 white -15% Tain
Erosion, terracing+manual work, south slope, thin and stony soils
Western end of hill has famous climats, e.g. Le Méal
12-18 months oak (med/large), some new, some stems in warm vintage
Whites: Marsanne, some Roussanne: maturation w/small new part
Chapoutier focuses on individual parcels, Chave is blending

391
Q

Crozes-Hermitage AOC

A

1,700 ha – north Alpine influences, mistral – extended 1956
45 hl/ha yield, machines on flatter land, typically medium tannins
Premium: Jaboulet Domaine de Thalabert
Whites 9% (more Marsanne), good/very good and mid/premium

392
Q

CORNAS AOC

A

South and east amphitheater, first Syrah harvested: 100% Syrah
Auguste Clape, Thierry Allemand

393
Q

SAINT-PÉRAY AOC

A

Limestone and granite, white wine: Marsanne majority, 45 hl/ha
Some sparkling

394
Q

Collines Rhodaniennes IGP

A

red, white and rosé outside AOC: 80 hl/ha, other rule

395
Q

Côtes du Rhone AOC

A

Southern Rhone: Warm Mediterranean, drought increasing (irrigation if severe)
Bush vines as fewer slopes to protect from mistral – Grenache-dominated
51 hl/ha – GSM min 60%, Grenache min. 30%, SM min. 20%
Whites: 6 varieties 80%, permitted = Piquepoul Blanc

Côtes du Rhone Villages AOC: 44 hl/ha, 66% 2 out of 3 main including Grenache
Côtes du Rhone Villages Séguret AOC: 41 hl/ha
Style: medium red plum/blackberry, med acidity/tannins/alcohol, good + inexpensive

396
Q

Southern Rhone Satellites

A

Gigondas AOC: up to 600 m, Dentelles de Montmirail shade, cooling Mistral
50% Grenache, either Syrah or Mourvedre, good/v. good, mid-premium
Vacqueyras AOC: 1990, lower at 440 m, diurnal range (white+rosé), same rules
Vinsobres AOC: 2006 – only red, same rules – S/SE 200-500 m – older C+C – Les Cornuds
Rasteau AOC: 2010 for red wine, same rules – low 100 m slopes enclave, ripest
Cairanne AOC: 2015, lacks slopes and warmth: fruity, approachable, 40% Grenache
Beaumes-de-Venise: 2005 – red wine, Dentelles shading, Grenache+Syrah 50
Lirac AOC: Across river, mostly red, some rosé+white: GSM + Cinsaut 90%
Infertile soils and lots of sun, businesses like Mordorée w/holdings in other AOCs
Tavel: Only rosé blend w/12 varieties, none more than 60% - 46 hl/ha
Med(+)/full body, medium pink-orange

397
Q

Chateauneuf-du-Pape

A

Baron Roy Chateau Fortia 1923 – 1936 (13/18 varieties)
90% red wines, 12.5% ABV min – Marsanne and Viognier not permitted
Mourvedre growing in popular, needs moisture-retaining soils
Hand harvest, 3000 ha of limestone, clay, sandstone, sandy – low fertility
Style: red plum/blackberry, spice, med acidity, high alcohol and range of tannins
5 soils: galet (power), shingle clay (tannin), sandstone (acidity), loess (fruit), red sandstone (black fruit/leather)

398
Q

Other Rhone Satellites

A

Ventoux: South and west slopes of Mont Ventoux, 450 m: 2/3 red, 1/3 rosé – 60 hl/ha
GSM, C+C = 50%, at least 2, ¼ exported and co-ops key, new ones like Fondrèche
Costières de Nimes AOC: SW Rhone on SW slopes, GSM 50%, move to estates
Luberon: SE Rhone, borders Provence: gentle slopes/flat, GSM 50% at least 2, 55 hl/ha
Grignan-les-Adhémar: 50% Grenache+Syrah, lighter style, white and rosé (north)
IGP: in Gard IGP, Merlot 3rd most, Cabernet Sauvignon

399
Q

Bordeaux Overview

A

Gironde estuary, Dordogne to north/Garonne to south
Plantings: 110,000 ha - 70% inexpensive or mid-priced

90% black grapes

Among AOC wines: 85% red, 10% white, 1% sweet, 4% rosé

Merlot 60%, Cabernet Sauvignon 20% (3x), Cabernet Franc less than 10%

400
Q

Bordeaux History

A

Médoc drained in 17th/18th century, Lafite and Margaux gain reputation
Historically, Bordeaux has been a key export center (Bergerac wines)
Foreign merchants exported wine - this system continues

1855 Classification: Exposition Universelle de Paris
- Based on price - Médoc+ Haut Brion classed into five levels, Sauternes into 3

401
Q

Bordeaux Environment

A

CLIMATE: moderate maritime, 950 mm w/variation

  • Rain at veraison: unripe fruit, fungal diseases
  • Médoc estates close to Gironde are prestigious (frost protection)
  • 2017, 2/3 of 10-year average production

SOIL
Gravel on Left Bank - mounds (croupes) highest in Margaux at 32 m
- Floodwaters from Pyrenees and Massif Central
Well-draining soils cause drought stress (Pomerol 2016)

402
Q

Bordeaux Grapes

A

Merlot
Early budding, mid-ripening (harvest before rain)
Prone to: coulure, drought, botrytis (sorting needed)
Fully ripens in cool years
Large berries, higher sugar (ABV) than cabernets: global warming disadvantage
Style: strawberry, red plum, herbaceous when cool, to blackberry, black plum

Cabernet Sauvignon
Late budding, late ripening
Small berries, thick skins, high tannins
Prone to: powdery mildew, esca and eutypa
Style: blackcurrant, menthol, medium alcohol, high acidity and tannins
Colder vintages = blending with Merlot/Cabernet Franc

Cabernet Franc
Red fruit, high acidity, and medium tannins

Petit Verdot
Early budding, later ripening than Cab. Sauvignon
Prone to: spring frost, failure to ripen, harvest rain
Warm areas (less than 5% of blend)
Style: spicy and high tannin

Sémillon
Mid-ripening, susceptible to botrytis, high yielding
Low intensity lemon/grass flavors, medium/medium(+) acidity, medium body
Adds body, softens Sauvignon Blanc’s high acidity and intensity
Affinity for new French oak spice/vanilla
Honey, dried fruit, wax
Best Sauternes have more Sémillon (Ch. d’Yquem)

Sauvignon Blanc
Grassy, gooseberry, high acidity - used for dry and sweet blends
Trend of monovarietal

Muscadelle
Prone to: botrytis, plant on well-exposed sites
Flowery and grapy notes in sweet white

403
Q

Bordeaux Vineyard

A

10,000 vines/hectare: infertile soils, moderate vigor (basic Bordeaux just 3,000)
Density is good for expensive vineyard land
Cost of plants and trellises, over-row tractors
Training: head trained, cane pruned: Left Bank is Double Guyot, Right Bank is Single Guyot
Remove leaves in summer, soft pruning on young wood, leaving old wood to dry and maximize sap flow
Flavescence dorée: insecticides (not compatible with organic/biodynamic)
Leaf removal later in season is less risky (aeration w/o sunburn)
Green harvest allowed 20 years ago, less popular b/c dilution
Avg. yield 50 hl/ha, super low yields on right bank caused jammy wines without terroir
Harvest used to be random, now more scheduled, hired for longer period
Northern Medoc - machine harvesting b/c vineyards are too far away from city
Machines also used for fungal pressure
Top estates might not sort in winery b/c of sorting in vineyard
Harvest plot by plot: single lot wines (smaller vessels, higher cost)

404
Q

Bordeaux Winemaking Reds

A

Fermentation in closed vats, pumping over is typical + cultured yeast
Temperature control, wood + steel + concrete
Simple wines: mid range temp, 5-7 days post-fermentation
Quality wines: mid-high, 14-30 days post fermentation
Shorter maceration times in poor vintages
Pneumatic/hydraulic presses for gentle extraction, press wine and free run into 225-liter barriques
Inoculation for rapid MLF (en primeur tasting in spring)
Simple wines: 4-6 months in concrete or stainless steel
Quality wines have a mix of new and old oak, some 100% new oak - 18-24 months
Cooperages: range of cooperages for complexity, toast level medium/medium(+)
Racking every 3 months (micro-oxygenation also)
Winter blending more common, though a few estates blend several months before bottling

Micro-oxygenation: structuring phase 1-3 months (more oxygen), then harmonisation phase (0.1-10 ml of oxygen per liter per month)
Oak fermented wines taste less oaky (flavors bind with yeast)

405
Q

Bordeaux Winemaking Rosé/White

A

Traditional Claret, lighter-colored rosé: from Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon
Saignée, younger vines, or short maceration - lighter rosé is direct pressed

White:
Direct pressing or 24 hours skin contact, cool fermentation for inexpensive
Mid-priced wines: 6-12 months on lees
Quality wines: barrique ferment and aging, new oak (MLF blocked)
Batonnage in decline (too much body)
Dubourdieu + Lurton: modern style, Sauvignon Blanc, less oak

406
Q

Bordeaux Winemaking Sweet

A 
Low yields (1/3 still wines, for high sugar): leave few buds, remove diseased fruit
(less than 10 hl/ha common)
Harvesters have to differentiate black rot from botrytis, period from September to November
How much botrytis? weather conditions, position of estate, wait and risk

Ferment is like dry white wine, 18-36 months in barrel for top wines
New oak: 30 to 50%, up to 100% at Ch. d’Yquem

407
Q

Bordeaux Appellations

A

In general: AOCs list permitted varieties w/o required proportions (tradition dominates)

Bordeaux AOC
67 hl/ha, 65 hl/ha, 62 hl/ha
Bordeaux Supérieur AOC
59 hl/ha

Together: 50% of all Bordeaux wine, mostly Merlot (high acidity, medium(+) tannins)
Whites made from Sauvignon Blanc, high acidity

408
Q

Médoc + Haut Médoc AOC

A

Red wine only, max. yield 55 hl/ha
Sale mid-June year after harvest
Médoc in north end, 50/50 Merlot/Cabernet Sauvignon
Haut-Médoc near Bordeaux town, gravelly 50% Cab, 44% Merlot

Chateau Belle-Vue south of Margaux (Cru Bourgeois Exceptionel) uses 20% Petit Verdot

409
Q

Saint-Estèphe AOC

A
  • Northernmost, coolest (Atlantic): 40% Merlot on clay soils away from Gironde
  • 50% Cabernet Sauvignon on gravel near estuary
  • Rustic style, some softer wines
  • Water-retention is advantage w/climate change
  • No First Growths, but 2nd growths and Cru Bourgeois

Second growth: Cos d’Estournel (2nd wine Pagodes de Cos), Chateau Montrose (60% new oak)
Third growth: Calon Segur

410
Q

Pauillac AOC

A
  • 62% Cabernet Sauvignon (high), gravel banks near estuary
  • Top estates have 70-80% Cab. S (longevity, concentration)
  • Structure, high tannin and acidity
  • Three of five first growths, 85% cru classé (highest of big 4)

Chateau Lafite 100% new oak, 80-95% Cabernet Sauvignon

411
Q

Saint-Julien AOC

A
  • Homogeneous gravel, style between Pauillac and Margaux
  • Five second growths
  • Lots of Cabernet Sauvignon and cru classé

2nd growth Ducru-Beaucaillou

412
Q

Margaux AOC

A
  • Less Cab and more Merlot, earlier ripening (7-10 earlier harvest than northern Médoc)
  • Clay seams in gravel soil require drainage (investment)
  • Perfumed wines, silky tannins

Chateau Margaux uses 100% new oak
Pavillon Blanc 100% Sauvignon Blanc, sold as Bordeaux

413
Q

Listrac-Médoc AOC/Moulis AOC

A
  • Further from river (less moderating influence, less gravel)
  • Earlier release date for consumption, otherwise same rules
  • Good/very good, mid-priced to premium
414
Q

Graves

A

Graves AOC yields: white 58 hl/ha, red 55 hl/ha (85% is red)
Generally acceptable/good, inexpensive/mid-priced
Graves Supérieures AOC botrytis/late harvest sweet wine, 40 hl/ha

415
Q

Pessac-Léognan AOC

A
  • Sub-region of Graves, gravel soil and moderating Garonne
  • 80% red/20% white, known for oak-aged whites (best in Bordeaux)
  • Yield 54 hl/ha for red and white
  • Whites are Sauvignon Blanc/Semillon blend: medium(+) body, medium(+)/high acidity
  • Red wines similar to four Médoc communes (Haut Brion)
416
Q

Entre-Deux-Mers

A

2nd largest appellation, only white, yield 65 hl/ha: acceptable to good

417
Q

Saint-Émilion+Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC

A

Small estates (1 ha), Merlot dominant (clay soil), Cabernet Franc, Cab Sauvignon

Yields 53 hl/ha and 46 hl/ha respectively, maturation 6 months and 20 months
60% Merlot, Cabernet Franc is next grown
Range of quality, classification system
Top wines are red+black plum, vanilla and clove, full body, high alcohol, medium(+) to high acidity/tannin

Grand Cru needs 0.5% ABV more (this is always achieved)
Classification must weights for Grand Cru exclude Merlot
Cheval Blanc 1947 - 2/3 Cabernet Franc (known as Bouchet)

418
Q

Saint-Emilion Satellites

A

Close to Saint-Émilion, further from river, same rules
Montagne Saint-Émilion AOC and Lussac Saint-Émilion AOC are largest

Saint-George is smallest satellite but highest elevation (90m)
Montagne-Saint-Emilion has 1,550 ha (largest satellite)

419
Q

Pomerol AOC

A

Small appellation for reds, 80% Merlot, then Cabernet Franc (style like Saint-Émilion)
Max. yield 49 hl/ha
No qualification system, but many top estates w/premium wines
Petrus has less than 12 ha (left bank estates have 80-100 ha) - high prices

Petrus is 100% Merlot (12 ha), 50% new oak

Lalande-de Pomerol AOC
Satellite, higher yields

420
Q

Côtes de Bordeaux

A

Created in 2009 on right bank:
Blaye Cotês de Bordeaux, Cadillac, Castillon and Francs
Red yields: 55 hl/ha, 52 hl/ha if commune is added

Côtes de Bourg AOC
Similar to CdB but not under same system
Merlot-dominant, similar to Médoc AOC
Malbec has 10% of hectares, highest in Bordeaux

421
Q

Sauternes and Barsac AOC

A

Sweet, botrytis: Sémillon (80% of plantings), Sauvignon Blanc and Muscadelle
Cold Ciron meets warm Garonne (morning mists that burn off)
Sauternes is largest sweet AOC (50% of production), Barsac can also use Sauternes name
Max. yields just 25 hl/ha (much lower in reality for full ripeness before noble rot)
Citrus peel, honey, mango and vanilla: full bodied, high alcohol, medium/medium(+) acidity, sweet
Lack of demand for sweet wines: producers making dry wines

Sainte-Croix-du-Mont AOC and Loupiac AOC (40 hl/ha)
Premières Côtes de Bordeaux AOC (45 hl/ha)
Can be botrytized or late harvest - good to very good quality

422
Q

1855 Grand Cru Classé

A
  • Based on prices of Médoc + Ch. Haut-Brion, as well as Sauternes
    • First to Fifth Growth for Médoc, First and Second for Sauternes
    • Chateau d’Yquem is Premier Cru Supérieur
  • Basically unaltered (Mouton Rothschild added in 1973)
  • 1/4 of Bordeaux wine is cru classé
  • Estate bottling is required (common even for non-cru wineries)
  • 60 leading properties

Haut-Brion has deep gravel, Margaux has limestone, Lafite has stony clay

423
Q

Graves Classification

A
  • 1959: based on price, fame, tasting quality
  • 16 chateau for red/white or both, all in Pessac Léognan
  • No sub-divisions, can be red or white
  • Needs to be revised but producers don’t want dispute like in Saint-Émilion
424
Q

Saint-Émilion Classification

A
  • Only applies to wines in Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC
  • Started in 1955, revised every 10 years (last in 2012)
  • Criteria: terroir, production methods, reputation, commercial factors, blind tasting of min. 10 vintages
  • Tiers: Premier Grand Cru A, Premier Grand Cru B, Grand Cru Classé
425
Q

Cru Bourgeois du Médoc

A
  • 1932: quality but below cru classé
  • 2010: awarded individually to individual wines in assessment (methods+product)
  • 2018: Cru Bourgeois, CB Supérieur, CB Exceptionnel (5 years)
426
Q

Bordeaux Business

A

7,000 estates (chateaux), number dropping (larger volume production)
Avg. size 19 hectares, 800 million bottles
1/4 production is co-ops from 40% of grapes
Cost of classed growth:
- Land cost and bank loans, harvest cost, viticulture
- Vine density, lower yield, grape selection+barrel aging(cost of barrels+time)
Selling wines: 100-point rating system is key now

4 billion euros, half France half export (44% by volume, 52% value)
Half in supermarket, 5.80 euros

427
Q

La Place de Bordeaux

A

Direct sales uncommon, instead:
Wine sold to négociant (collectively la négoce, 70% of wine), who sells it to wholesalers and retailers
Broker (courtier) manages the producer-négociant relationship
Négociants sell to distributors (import/wholesale/retail): 15% of sales price
Courtier makes 2% typically
Large number of export countries mean many négociants (up to 40)
Allocation system determines number of cases received by négociant (percentage)
Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur sold for close to 1 euro bulk (low demand in France, competition from Chile, Australia) - sold in supermarkets
Who makes cheap wine? Co-ops, small producers, grapes sold to large companies (Castel)

428
Q

En Primeur

A

High quality and classed growths: futures, wine sold before it is bottled (year to 18 months)
Sold in spring after harvest
- customers pay lower price than in specialist wine store
- producers get cash flow, early payment
Arose after WWII, chateaux struggling: popular after 1970, 1982 vintage
April after harvest
1. estates give samples to buyers/journalists (5000-6000 tasters)
2. estates release prices in May/June
3. first tranche put up for sale via negociant, based on reputation and reviews
4. price adjusted for next tranches based on market
5. price typically rises in subsequent tranches
6. trade buyers decide which wines and quantities, critics publish reviews
7. fine wine merchants have en primeur offers for end customers
8. top wines on allocation: négociants and trade buyers locked in even for poor vintage
9. négociants stuck w/wines if there is little to sell or prices for vintage are too high

Process lasts several months
Success factors: quality, asking price and market
- Overly high prices mean excess stock to store
- Market fluctuation - avg. vintage after multiple excellent years, prices lower
- If producers do not reduce price, wine may not be sold

En primeur price includes delivery to retailer’s storage
‘ex cellar’ - buyer must pay taxes in home market
Wine held in storage unit (temp. and humidity)
Buyer’s options? Delivery, storage until drinkable, sell forward (price rises)
Secondary market is dominated by Bordeaux

429
Q

En primeur pros and cons

A

Debate: in 2000s, en primeur rose (China helped) - high prices even in poor 2011 vintage
Prices then fell
Critics also criticize their own influence - they are tasting unfinished wine
Chateau Latour no longer sells wine en primeur (2012), others reduced volume
Smaller chateaux need the money

Estate pro: Estates can test market (lower-priced 1st tranche)
Early money, investment return for next vintage
Lower price than bottled wine
Estate con: Negociants might lose money or handle the business poorly, lowering estate’s reputation
Customer pro: Customer gets reputed wine at lowest price
Can keep or trade
Customer con: Critics taste unfinished wine, product may be different
Negociants/shippers may go out of business
Prices could fall, losing money

430
Q

Bergerac AOC

A

Dry, sweet white, rosé and red
50% red, 10% rosé, 40% white
Warmer and drier than Bordeaux, clay and limestone mixed with gravel
Reds: min. 50% blend of at least 2: Cab Sauvignon/Franc, Malbec, Merlot
Yields 67 hl/ha for white, 60 hl/ha for red
Aging in steel or old oak for easy drinking and reduced cost

Côtes de Bergerac AOC
Just main Bordeaux varieties, 50 hl/ha
Oak aging common, Merlot dominates

Business: 90% domestic, supermarkets more than 50%, direct sales <30%, then 10% hospitality and shops
Export: China 40%, Belgium and UK

Tour des Gendres, FR-BIO-16 organic certification
‘La Vigne d’Albert’ w/mix of indigenous
Permitted red grapes: Fer and Mérille
Permitted white grapes: Ondenc
Historically was penalized by smaller barrels (tax per number of barrels) when passing through Bordeaux

431
Q

Monbazillac AOC

A

Sweet white only, either botrytis or late harvest
Dordogne junction with tributary, moist air funneled
Multiple vineyard passes
80% principal varieties: Sauvignon Blanc/Gris, Sémillon, Muscadelle
Max. yield 30 hl/ha, new oak less common than Sauternes
Similar to other less prestigious sweet appellations
Cave Cooperative de Monbazillac (50 growers) is largest producer
Less than 10% export (in France, >50% supermarkets+deep discounters_
NW Europe for exports

Tributary = Gardonette
Muscadelle more important here than Sauternes, hillier

432
Q

Cahors environment

A

250 km inland, but some Atlantic influence - less than 800 mm per year
Malbec: coulure and mildew, more regular ripening here
Tannat authorized, less than 10% typically and often ignored
17% organic production (less spraying needed) - much above France
Location: fertile alluvial soil near river (higher yield)
- mid slope and highest plateau ~350 m for best wines, most concentrated
Single Guyot training typical (cordon and bush also used)
Machine harvesting common, hand harvesting often used (return on investment)

433
Q

Cahors Winemaking

A

Malbec: Vigorous (canopy/yield management), coulure
Deep ruby, violet red and black plum, medium/medium(+) acidity, medium(+) to high tannins
Some French oak for best, some foudres

Winemaking
Min. 70% Malbec, rest is Merlot or Tannat - 90/100% Malbec for best quality wines
Destemming is required (to avoid underripe tannins)
Underripeness now is likely due to drought stress
Extraction: from 7-10 days for Merlot blends, to 15-25 for bottle aging

Chateau du Cédre, organic production
50 hl/ha yield

434
Q

Cahors Business

A

80% private companies, 20% by Cooperative des Vignerons d’Olt (Vinovalie)
‘Cahors, The French Malbec/Capital of Malbe’

Voluntary classification: Tradition - 70/85% Malbec on alluvial soils
Prestige - mid-priced, mid slope
Spéciale - close to 100% Malbec, higher sites

70% of sales are domestic (supermarket and direct), exports growing (4x in 20 years)
United Kingdom, Canada and USA

435
Q

Madiran Environment

A

Near Pyrenees, 80 km from Atlantic - Tannat variety
(also sweet white in geographical area, Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh AOC)

Environment
1,000 mm of rain, Atlantic influence (winter and spring)
southern Föhn wind dries in summer and autumn
Landscape: four large parallel ridges N-S (west slopes), clay and limestone w/drainage
Slopes make tannic wines for aging
Flat land has clay/clay loam for early drinking

70% Tannat, 20% Cabernet Franc, 10% Cabernet Sauvignon, also Fer Savadou (Pinenc)

436
Q

Madiran Winemaking

A

Tannat
Vigorous (wants trellis), mid-ripening before autumn rains
Prone to botrytis, highly tannis
Deep ruby, blackberry/blackcurrant/oak, high tannins and acidity, full body (high alcohol often)

Winemaking
60-80% Tannat, w/Cabernet Franc and Cab. Sauvignon, Fer
Cordon de Royat or cane training
Destemming required, yield 55 hl/ha
How to soften tannins? short maceration, oak aging, bottle age (cost)
Patrick Ducournau developed micro-oxygenation in 1991
Easy drinking is popular: ripest fruit, gentle pressing, Mox
Sale only from November in year after harvest

Micro-oxygenation more before MLF (30-60mg/l/month, then 1-2mg/l/month
Alain Brumont Chateau Montus La Tyre, 100% new barrels
Grebb granules from Pyrenees alluvial glacier deposits

437
Q

Madiran Business

A

80% domestic (50% supermarkets, 25% hospitality, 25% direct/specialty shops)
UK, Belgium and Germany
Production 50:50 private domaines and co-operatives (Plaimont from Saint-Mont AOC)

438
Q

Jurançon environment

A

Pyrenee foothills, 300 m
Dry and sweet wines from Petit Manseng (65%) Gros Manseng (30%) etc.
70% medium-sweet, 30% dry in 3 styles

Environment
Mild, humid, 1200 mm rain throughout year (flowering/fruit set/harvest)
Slopes for good drainage (some require terracing), S and SW
Föhn wind in spring and fall, 1/3 of days, drying and aerating
Budding zone high above ground to prevent spring frost
Soil: limestone, sand, clay, stone
Hand harvest, multiple passes for sweet (October to December), passerillage
Hang time, sun and wind allow for drying: low yields

439
Q

Jurançon Winemaking

A 
Petit Manseng
Early budding (spring frost), mid-late ripening, thick skin (resists botrytis)
Retains high acidity, moderately aromatic, high alcohol (picking date important)

Gros Manseng
Similar but higher yield, less aromatic: usually for dry wines

Winemaking
3 styles with 50% Petit and/or Gros Manseng (typically 100%)
Jurançon Vendange Tardives (sweet)
- lemon, mango, high acidity, full body and often high alcohol
- min. 55 g/l sugar, no enrichment, 40 hl/ha, only Mansengs
- No harvest before 2 November
Jurançon (medium-sweet)
- min. 40 g/l sugar, 40 hl/ha
Jurançon Sec (dry)
- 60 hl/ha

Quality sweet wines: barrel aging (old oak), 12-18 months - complexity and cost
MLF usually doesn’t happen as pH is too low, fruit flavors
Quality dry wines might include Petit Manseng (lees aging)

440
Q

Jurançon Business

A

Sales divided: direct, supermarket and hospitality, exports small
Domain Cauhapé, Cave de Gan co-op is half of production
Dry wine increasing (sweet difficult to sell and competition)

Petit Courbu, Courbu
Domaine Cauhapé Geyser has all 5 permitted varieties (Camaralet)
Cave de Gan has HVE

441
Q

IGP Southwest France

A

IGP Côtes de Gascogne
Plaimont has marketed whites to UK and northern Europe
80% exported, Colombard, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay

442
Q

Irouléguy

A

Red Tannat, white Petit Courbu/Mansengs

443
Q

Alsace Overview

A

Production 90% white wine
AOC adopted in 1945 after return to France, shift from flat land for inexpensive to hills for premium
Cremant has grown slightly, still wine fallen in last 10 years

444
Q

Alsace Environment

A

Long growing season, moderate continental climate - 600 mm per year
Irrigation not permitted in AOC, summer drought is issue - rain spread throughout year (August)
Flowering and fruit set rain hazard
Föhn wind: warm, raises temp., reduces disease
High sunshine hours
Altitude: Vosges foothills, 200-250 m for best sites, up to 450 m
S/SE/SW slopes are best (sunlight interception), inexpensive on Rhine river plain

445
Q

Alsace Grapes

A

20% Riesling, Pinot Blanc, Gewurztraminer
16% Pinot Gris
11% Pinot Noir
5% Sylvaner

Riesling
Late budding, mid-late ripening (long season) - can still produce quality at 70 hl/ha
Resistant to downy mildew, some resistance to botrytis/powdery mildew
Unoaked, medium-pronounced, high acidity, med/full body (citrus, stone fruit)

Gewurztraminer
Early budding (frost), early ripening - accumulates sugar rapidly
Vigorous (pruning/canopy), moderate productivity (coulure)
Chlorosis, stem dessication, powdery mildew, grape vine moth, grey rot
Virus-free clones developed by institute
Low acidity, med/full body, lychee, peach, rose and spice

Pinot Blanc/Auxerrois
Acceptable to good, low intensity apple/peach, medium acidity
Auxerrois is early ripening, low acidity - blends or Crémant

Pinot Gris
Early budding, early ripening: moderate yield, botryrtis/downy mildew
Medium/high alcohol, full body/medium acidity - oily smoky honeyed notes
Rapid drop in acidity: earlier harvest due to climate change + canopy management
Drier styles more common now, 12.5-13.5%

Pinot Noir
Local demand, learning from other regions - unoaked and oaked, Muré, Albert Mann

Silvaner
On decline, older vines (40 or more) so it is source of good value (not found on valley floor)

Muscat
Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Muscat Ottonel (ripens earlier, avoids rain)

446
Q

Alsace Vineyard

A

Single/double Guyot required by AOC
Higher training at 1-1.2 m to avoid frost (on plain), canopy at 1.9 m for max. sun exposure
Spacing between rows is wider to avoid shading
Density: 4,000-4,800 vines/ha, less dense on valley floor, more dense on slopes
Some grand cru sites are terraced
Pests: Powdery/downy mildew, lobesia botrana, esca
15% organic (France is 10%), small-scale production means closer monitoring
Harvest is extended, early September to late October - range of styles and sites
Grand cru is hand harvested

447
Q

Alsace Winemaking

A

Monovarietal is typical, primary fruit character: some skin contact
Cold ferment: Muscat, Riesling + Silvaner
Mid-range ferment: Gewurztraminer (aroma not affected, high sugar levels mean higher temp is more reliable)
Inert fermentation (large oak or stainless steel, very little new oak used)
Small producers like ambient yeast (terroir expression)
MLF avoided in general to protect fruit
Wines stored on fine lees without stirring to preserve freshness
Indications of sweetness are now becoming more regularized (from 2021 harvest required, EU level or visual scale)

448
Q

Alsace Laws

A

Alsace AOC yields: max. 80 hl/ha for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer, 90 hl/ha for Riesling, 100 hl/ha for Pinot Blanc

13 communes (Bergheim), name allowed: 72 hl/ha
Lieu-dit name allowed: 68 hl/ha
Grand cru 55 hl/ha, sometimes 50 hl/ha (Rangen)

Grand cru introduced in 1975, single variety noble (Riesling Muscat Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer)
Some allow blend (Altenberg de Bergheim) or Silvaner
Debate about grand cru status being too lax
Trimbach/Hugel initially rejected, now using it: each of 51 grand crus is individual since 2011 (different rules)
Premier cru under discussion

449
Q

Vendange Tardive/Selection de Grains Nobles

A

Four noble varieties, high sugar level at harvest
SGN has to be botrytis and sweet

Sugar: Muscat/Riesling VT: 235 g/l, SGN: 276 g/lol
Pinot Gris/Gewurztraminer: 257 g/l, SGN; 306 g/l

450
Q

Alsace Business

A

Avg. holding under 3.5 ha, many co-ops (40%)
Gastronomy, 75% sold in France
Export: EU (Belgium/Germany/Netherlands), then North America
Flute bottle required, brand identity (similar to German)
Many domains have 20-35 bottlings (all varieties and styles/quality levels)
Hugel, Trimbach, Zind-Humbrecht
Cave de Turckheim has 50 bottlings, seven varieties (rely on producer/Alsace reputation)
Rangen Grand Cru in extreme south of the appellation has warm volcanic soils where Zind-Humbrecht makes Riesling + Pinot Gris, lower yield of 50 hl/ha
Marcel Deiss: Does not specify grape variety (mixed planting), Altenberg de Bergheim (GW and Riesling)

451
Q

Alsace Extras

A

Alsace Grand Cru max. 8 buds/square meter (Gewurztraminer 12 buds/square meter)

Sub-Vosges hills more limestone and calcareous, mountains are granite and volcanic and sandstone
Zotzenberg allow Silvaner

Commune: Saint-Hippolyte
Edelzwicker or Gentil is cheap blend

Grand Cru is 4% of production

Kaefferkopf allows Gewurz blends

Walled vineyards such as Zind-Humbrecht’s Clos Windbuhl are outside of Grand Cru but command premium prices

452
Q

Australia Overview

A

Settlers brought vines in 1788
James Busby brought vines in 1830s
South Australia is phylloxera-free: old vine Syrah, Cab. Sauvignon, Grenache
Exports to Europe during phylloxera era
Domestic fortified wines of Muscat, Syrah, Grenache
After WWII, demand of dry non-fortified wines increases
Companies started in 1950s (Penfolds, Jacobs Creek)
Planting of cool regions for boutique vineyards in 1970s
Australian marketing led varietal labelling, taste descriptors
Became 5th largest exporter in 2000s
Oversupply caused vineyards to fall (Australian model copied)
- Strength of Australian dollar after 2008 crisis made it costly
- Droughts increased cost of irrigation water
- Result: shift to smaller production and higher priced wines

453
Q

Australia Business

A

2,250 wineries (number has fallen, small wineries becoming growers)
12 producers had 12,000 tonnes, 80% had 250 tonnes or less
Large companies: Accolade Wines, Casella Family Brands, Treasury Wine Estates (87% of exports)
Wine Australia: levy on grape grower to fund research, control export, promote wines
Increase demand, competitiveness, quality
5th largest exporter (growth since 1980s), exports 7-8.6 million hL (2/3 of production)
UK, China, USA, Canada and Germany
China is fastest growing, leads in value (China-Australia Free Trade Agreement, shipment to mainland)
2/3 of wineries have a cellar door, 70-80% in Victoria/Tasmania
Wine tourism is big deal, near cities or even Margaret River
Experimentation with new varieties popular on domestic market, hard sell on exports

454
Q

Australia Environment

A

146,000 ha planted, SE of country: 30 to 37 S latitude
Mostly flat (Coonawarra 100km from coast but maritime)
Great Dividing Range from Queensland to Victoria
Varied soils, different ages
7th largest producer (sometimes 5th or 6th): 12.6 million hL
Hazards: drought (Murray-Darling Basin can run low)
- Adelaide Hills + Margaret River store water in dams until needed
- McLaren Vale + Coonawarra rely on underground water
- Use of recycled wastewater from Adelaide suburbs
Canopy management: Scott-Henry + Smart-Dyson for vigor, old vines
Mechanization thanks to wide vine rows and flat/gentle slopes
- Large area covered quickly (bring grapes to cool winery, night harvest)
Salinity of soil with irrigation over time, or aquifers deposit on surface
- Chardonnay is vulnerable = rootstocks, irrigation patterns
Grafting often used for acidity/salinity, future phylloxera prevention
Sustainable Winegrowing Australia has 25% of production
Birds fought with netting, kangaroos have no solution
Heat means narrow harvest window, logistics mean some early harvested grapes

455
Q

Australia Grapes

A

25% Shiraz, 20% Chardonnay, 15% Cabernet Sauvignon, 5% Merlot + Sauvignon Blanc
Lots of indigenous warm-climate European grapes (Fiano, Sangiovese)
Australian Wine Research Institute in Adelaide

Shiraz
Adaptable: from Barossa Valley + McLaren Vale, full body + soft tannins, dark fruit
Yarra Valley + Grampians: medium alcohol, red and black cherry, black pepper
Trend is less intensity: less extraction, whole bunches or less oak
American oak is traditional, French oak becoming more popular
Open fermentation with manual punch downs used for quality soft extraction
GSM blends (Mataro), Shiraz-Viognier co-fermented (cheaper blended after)
Also acts like Merlot in Cabernet Sauvignon blends

Cabernet Sauvignon
Higher acidity + tannin than Shiraz, blackcurrant and black cherry, oak
Coonawarra: eucalyptus, Margaret River for Merlot blend, riper + herbal

Merlot
Often in blends, or single: from medium body/tannins to full black fruit, clones

Pinot Noir
- Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, Tasmania: medium body, medium-high acidity, red fruit flavors: whole bunch, cold maceration and stem inclusion are common

Grenache
Just 1% of harvest weight, but old bush vines in McLaren vale, Eden Valley + Barossa
new style has fresher fruit, higher acidity - whole bunches or stems, old oak or large barrels

Chardonnay
Harvest now earlier, leaner style with less oak
Premium wines usually medium/medium(+) acidity with citrus/peach
Complexity from ambient yeasts, solids, barrel, lees
Sometimes blended with Semillon in cheap wines

Sauvignon Blanc
Less herbaceous than NZ, Adelaide Hills is famous: intense citrus/tropical
Bordeaux style blend in Margaret River w/Semillon

Pinot Grigio
Either early harvest for neutral Veneto style, or fuller Alsace (less full bodied though)
Victoria (Mornington Peninsula) and Tasmania make best Pinot Gris

Semillon
Low alcohol, high acidity Hunter Valley style: complex with bottle aging
Fuller bodied high alcohol, oaky style from Barossa Valley
Riverina in New South Wales: complex sweet wines

Riesling
Clare and Eden Valley, Great Southern, Canberra + Tasmania
Bone dry, high acidity, lime, grapefruit and peach
Bottling soon after fermentation (steel), premium just free-run juice

Muscat Gordo Blanco, Colombard
Blending partner for better known varieties, decreasing in last 10-15 years

456
Q

Australia Divisions

A

GIs developed in 1990s

Zones: No rules or geographic/climatic characteristics
ex: South Australia, South Eastern Australia, Fleurieu, Barossa
Regions: 63 identified: Coonawarre, Clare Valley, Margaret River
must have distinct, consistent character: 500 tonnes of grapes, 5 vineyards of 5 ha
Tasmania is a region, not a zone
Sub-Regions: 14 identified, in Hunter Valley + Great Southern for topography

Zones are typically used for multi-region blends
Label Integrity Programme of 1990: 85% of grapes in vintage, variety or GI
Multiple varieties listed in descending order
Audits regularly carried out by Australia Grape and Wine Authority

457
Q

South Eastern Australia

A

Murray-Darling Basin: Riverland, Murray-Darling, Riverina
Riverland has some maritime influence (no mountains)
Casella Family Brands in Riverina, Lindeman’s in Murray Darling
Sandy soils and low (135mm) rainfall make irrigation essential
Shiraz, Chardonnay and Semillon (Riverina): high alcohol, low acidity, ripe fruit
Hot climate grapes Petit Verdot, Viognier, Vermentino, Nero d’Avola do better
Griffith in Riverina has sweet Semillon (tend to be labeled individual region name)

458
Q

South Australia

A

50% of Australia’s production, concentrated in SE corner near coast
Eight smaller zones, including Limestone Coast + Fleurieu
Penfolds Grange is just South Australia

459
Q

Barossa Valley

A

60 km inland of Adelaide, 11,000 ha,
Protected: west plain with low hills, Eden Valley Region and south Adelaide Hills
Hot summer days, cooler nights, low rainfall (160 mm)
250 to 370 m altitudes, valley sides are cooler
Soil variety: ironstone in north retains water, age-worthy wines
First plantings in 1840s, Barossa Old Vine Charter 2009 (many lost in vine pull 1980s)
Style: full body, high alcohol, high tannins, ripe (cooked) black fruit
New American oak, shift to French oak and earlier harvest for elegance
Cabernet Sauvignon cooler sites, soft tannins and higher alcohol than Margaret River
Grenache in Rhone blends and single variety
9% of production is white: tropical Chardonnay, high alcohol Semillon, oaky

460
Q

Eden Valley

A

East of Barossa, exposed hills in Mount Lofty Ranges, often steep gradients
Up to >600 m altitude (230 mm rain), wind can affect flowering
Better water retention, more dry farming
Old-vine Shiraz and Riesling
Production is half white, half red: 1/3 Riesling
Shiraz has higher acid, more structure, lower alcohol: ripe plum and blackberry

461
Q

Adelaide Hills

A

Old region, vines were removed by 1930, replanted in 1970s
Valleys and hills restrict machines
Cool to moderate maritime climate (400-500 m, near ocean)
Low altitude west slopes for red wines, higher altitude for whites
Low latitude means ripe fruit even at high sites
Piccadilly Valley and Lenswood are sub-regions
280 to 320 mm rain during growing season, winter rain collected in dams
Fungal diseases and rot are a problem: spraying is common
64% whites, 28% Sauvignon Blanc: ripe fruit, high acidity (less herbaceous)
Chardonnays have ripe stone fruit, medium+/high acidity, often MLF
Pinot Noir for sparkling wine and still, medium bodied/alcohol
Some fruity/peppery medium-bodied, high tannin Shiraz
Grüner Veltniner: Hahndorf Hill, Fiano, Arneis
Basket Range area for low-intervention wine

462
Q

Clare Valley

A

125 km north of Adelaide, warm climate with cool afternoon breezes/cold nights
Vineyards at 300-500 m, gentle slopes and ridges/valleys
Only 250 mm rain during growing season
Small, family-owned vineyards
Riesling over 35% of plantings
Sunburn is hazard: thick canopies with west shade
Dry, medium alcohol + lime aromas, higher acidity than Eden Valley
Slate soil of Polish Hill: low fertility, flintier Riesling for aging (honey and toast)
Limestone Watervale for aromatic, fertile early drinking style
Black varieties just over half: Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon, medium(+) acidity/tannins

463
Q

McLaren Vale

A

Gulf St. Vincent to West, Adelaide Hills to east
Gulf winds and hill winds moderate warm/hot climate
Less than 200 mm of rain during growing season
7,200 ha with microclimates: sea and altitude (up to 350 m)
Varied soil types: north has lower nutrients, south is more fertile
Oldest wine-producing region in Australia
European (Italian) immigration after WWII brought back red wine production
More than 90% black grapes, >1/2 Shiraz, then Cabernet and Grenache
Deep color, full body, high alcohol, spicy oak, jammy
Blewitt Springs in north has old vine Grenache: medium tannins/acidity, red fruit
Mediterranean grapes like Sangiovese, Mourvèdre
Large vineyards, mechanized dominate
Excess vigor (Shiraz and Grenache are vigorous) and fertile soils are difficult
Organic and biodynamic common, Sustainable Winegrowing based here
Dams, boreholes and recycled wastewater used for irrigation
Producers: Hardys, Mollydooker and Yangarra

464
Q

Coonawarra

A 
Limestone Coast
	Cooler climate (further south), sea breezes and cool nights, flat land

Moderate, Bordeaux climate (warmer and drier, 260 mm during season)
Cloud cover in season moderates temp
Spring frost hazard, combatted with sprinklers
Terra rossa: iron-rich clay loam, 50 cm deep over limestone base
- Alkaline soil restricts nutrient uptake, limestone blocks roots
- Soft limestone beneath base holds water for irrigation
- Narrow strip in center of 5,000 ha GI
More than 50% of plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon
- Medium alcohol, medium/full body, high tannins, mint and eucalyptus
Shiraz planted, lighter body than Barossa
13% white varieties: ripe fruity Chardonnay, Riesling with lower acidity
Isolation makes workforce difficult: mechanization/migrant labor
Producers: Wynns, Katnook

465
Q

Victoria

A

Split into six zones
Focused on quality (3rd highest production) apart from Murray-Darling basin
Yarra Valley planted in 1838 at Yering Station, phylloxera in late 1800s
Vineyards struggled in 1930s - recovery in 1960s with just 22 producers
Yarra Valley has had issues with phylloxera - grafting, replanting

466
Q

Yarra Valley (Port Philipp Zone)

A

Cool to moderate climate, 2,500 ha, altitudes 50 - 350 m
Lower Yarra is low NW, Upper Yarra is high SE
Gentle valley slopes, risk of frost on valley floor
Annual rain: 1,100 mm (450-500 mm in season)
Fungal diseases, humidity
Lower Yarra: Loamy clay soil, low fertility - well-draining, irrigation
Upper Yarra: Deeper, fertile volcanic soils - dry farming
60% black grapes, more than 1/2 Pinot Noir
Style: light to medium body, fruity, whole bunch fermentation
Mix of new and old oak, large (500 L) barrels more common
Just over 1/4 Chardonnay: white peach, grapefruit, melon
- First to adopt lean style, high acidity, less oak,
- High solids give smoky flavors from reduction
- MLF often avoided, but lees or oak still used
Shiraz + Cabernet Sauvignon in warm parts: medium body, spicy
Producers: Mount Mary + Yarra Yering

467
Q

Mornington Peninsula

A

Cool to moderate climate, 920 ha, Port Phillip Bay and Bass Strait
High sunshine hours, but wind keeps temps low, water makes fall mild
Wind keeps disease pressure low, but inhibits flowering
Rain 320-390 mm during growing season, can be risk at harvest/flowering
Flat area, with Red Hill ridge up to 250 m (red basalt soils hold water)
Lyre system for training to manage vigor on ridge
Free-draining clay and sand away from ridge
1/2 Pinot Noir: light body, medium(+) acidity from Red Hill, or more intense from lower
Cold soaking for color extraction, whole bunches or stems for tannins
Chardonnay: ~30% of plantings, medium body + high acidity
Some high quality Shiraz and Pinot Gris
Land prices high, competition from tourism/golf courses
Producers: Yabby Lake and Paringa, cellar doors/restaurants for DTC

468
Q

Geelong

A

First phylloxera in Australia, re-established in 1960s
Bellarine Peninsula, 500-600 mm of rain, strong SW winds
467 ha of vineyards, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, Shiraz + Cabernet Sauvignon
Riper red/black cherry, medium soft tannins for Pinot Noir
Chardonnays medium bodied, peach and melon
Producers: Paradise IV Wines, Wines By Farr

469
Q

Macedon Ranges

A

215 ha, 40 quality wineries
Great Dividing Range, 300-800 m of altitude
Shallow granite/sandy loam on hillsides, deeper on low slopes
Chardonnay, Pinot Noir (still/sparkling) + Riesling
Shiraz for black pepper on warm sites
Producer: Bindi

470
Q

Grampians (Western Victoria)

A

Moderate climate, 130 km inland, 240-440 m altitude
Low rainfall in growing season (250 mm), but sandy/loam soils retain water
Acidic soils reduce yields, treatment with lime

471
Q

Pyrenees

A

gentle slopes, warmer and lower than Grampians
Shiraz: medium bodied, peppery and spicy, red to black fruit
Mount Langi Ghiran, Dalwhinnie

472
Q

Henty

A

SW Victoria, cold Antarctic winds, high sunshine hours
Sea level to 460 m of altitude
Riesling: high acidity, lemon + lime toasty with age
Chardonnay, Pinot Gris/Noir, Shiraz + Cabernet Sauvignon

473
Q

King Valley

A

Northeast Victoria, continental climate
Up to 860 m in altitude, high rainfalls (disease pressure), bottom around 250 m
High fertile, well draining loams: vigor management
1,400 ha of vineyards, equal black and white
Italian immigrants (tobacco after WWII), Glera is 1/3 of production
Pinot Grigio for light bodied style is most planted still white
Merlot + Cab Sauvignon most planted
Sangiovese, Barbera and Nebbiolo most interesting
Domestic consumption dominates, exports increasing (pricey compared to Italy)
Producers: Pizzini and de Bortoli
Forza di Ferro Sangiovese

474
Q

Beechworth

A

200 to 1000 m, wide range of climates: medium body Chardonnay + Shiraz
Also Pinot Noir, Sangiovese and Nebbiolo

475
Q

Central Victoria

A

Goulbourn Valley for Marsanne, Viognier + Roussanne (Mitchelton)
and Bendigo: Flat, warm plains for ripe full bodied reds
Upper Goulbourn is cool foothills, Chardonnay, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc

476
Q

Heathcote

A

Mount Carmel Range, altitudes of 160 and 320 m
Slopes funnel south winds, diurnal range preserves acidity
250 mm of rain during growing season, rain steady throughout year
Calcareous red soil, weathered greenstone: retains water, dry farming
3/4 black grapes, 50% Shiraz: medium(+) acidity, full body, high alcohol, dark fruit + spice
Producers: Jasper Hill and Heathcote Estate

477
Q

Gippsland

A

More than 50 family-owned vineyards, coastal flats and hillsides
420-530 mm of rain in growing season, Chardonnay + Pinot Noir or Cab. + Merlot

478
Q

New South Wales

A

2nd state for production, growth since 1980s
Sub-tropical, moderate to high temperatures, high humidity + rain
Inland climate continental (Great Dividing Range)

479
Q

Hunter Valley

A

Region: Hunter, 2600 ha vineyards (oldest in Australia)
32-33 S, tropical climate with hot and humid temperatures, intense sun
Lower Hunter: coastal breezes, sandy and clay loam over clay base
500 mm rainfall during growing season, fungal diseases
Tropical storms are a concern in summer, harvest often earliest in Australia
Semillon: light body, high acidity, low alcohol
- Neutral when young, honey and hay with bottle age
- Highest quality wines not released for five years
- Early harvest, gentle pressing with no skin contact, moderate temps
- Producers: Tyrrell’s + Mount Pleasant
Chardonnay also common, range of styles (cooler sites, earlier picking)
Shiraz: medium body, red and black fruit, spice

480
Q

Central Ranges Zone

A

Mudgee: Harvest 1 month after Hunter Valley, lower rainfall making irrigation necessary
Continental climate with cooling from altitude, intense sun - 450 m
Orange: Labels often say Orange Region, slopes of Mount Canobolas 600-900 m
Red volcanic basalt soils, yellow/brown clay loams, gravel
Wind prevents frost, affects fruit set
Black varieties just over 1/2: Shiraz with red fruit, Cabernet with blackcurrant, medium body
Chardonnay: high acidity, medium body, MLF common with oak
Sauvignon Blanc + Pinot Gris increasing
Ross Hill + Tamburlaine
Mudgee dominated by Shiraz + Cab, Cowra by Chardonnay

481
Q

Canberra District

A

Southern New South Wales
Continental climate, sheltered by Snowy Mountains
500-850 m altitude, diurnal range + intense sun
Irrigation needed, but autumn rain can be a challenge
Shiraz for black cherry, high tannins + acidity
Tim Kirk: Shiraz/Viognier pioneer
Ravensworth
Riesling: floral and citrus, high acidity
Lark Hill Grüner Veltliner
Hilltops: Shiraz, Cab Sauvignon, Chardonnay
Tumbarumba: Pinot + Chardonnay, still/sparkling

482
Q

Tasmania

A

1,700 ha of vines, less than 1% of wine
Still wines are 2/3 of production

Cool maritime due to latitude and west winds from Southern Ocean

Tasmania is one GI, but informal regions exist
Coal River Valley in SE, Tamar Valley in north
South is cooler than north: NE aspect important
SE is drier, irrigation
NW has 350 mm of rain in growing season, fungal diseases
Pinot Noir 42%, Chardonnay 28%
Pinot: light/medium body, medium(+) to high acidity
Chardonnay: medium body, apple, white peach and pear
MLF common, barrel fermentation for premium
Cool climate grapes: Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Pinot Gris
Tolpuddle and Tamar Ridge
Domestic market is huge, tourism/DTC

483
Q

Margaret River

A

Swan Valley near Perth is very hot, high yielding
3% of Australia’s production, premium focus

5,700 ha of vineyards, 20% Cabernet Sauvignon
Warm Indian Ocean gives longer ripening (nights are not cool)
Maritime climate, frosts are not an issue
1000 mm of rain year round, only 275 mm during season
Flat region, gentle hills (less than 100 m altitude)
Gravelly soils, irrigation (dams), low fertility
Ridge in center shelters some east vineyards
Botrdeaux blends: medium(+) acidity, high tannins, blackberry, blackcurrent
Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Semillon have 17-19 percent each
Chardonnay is premium white: high acidity, medium(+) body and stone fruit
MLF blocked, barrel fermentation and maturation (usually French oak)
Sauvignon Blanc/Semillon/blend, grassy + herbaceous, gooseberry to tropical
Stainless steel or barrel ferment (more oxygen available for aerobic phase of yeast, higher alcohol)
Producers: Leeuwin and Moss Wood

484
Q

Great Southern

A

Sub-regions: Albany and Denmark are maritime, coastal
Mount Barker, Porongurup and Frankland River up to 300 m
Frankland River has more continental climate, less rain (220 mm)
Salinity in low lying soil, water pumped from a distance
55% black grapes (Shiraz 30%)
Shiraz in Mt. Barker and Frankland River: high acidity/tannins, herbal, psice
Producers: Larry Cherubino, Howard Park
Cabernet Sauvignon: Mount Barker powerful, Porongurup elegant, medium body
Riesling main white (less planted than Sauvignon Blanc/Chardonnay)
- Porungurup for light bodied, high acidity, bottle aging
Sauvignon Blanc more monovarietal, Albany and Denmark
Chardonnay: barrel fermentation, lees contact

485
Q

Adelaide Hills extras

A

Petaluma founded in 1976, modern era
Piccadilly Valley is high altitude, harvest and ripening latest
- Hahndorf Hill: Grüner Veltliner and Blaufränkisch (Blueblood and Gru)
- Whole-bunch for Pinot Noir and Syrah
- Basket Range for low-intervention, Lucy Margaux

486
Q

Barossa extras

A
  • Yalumba started in 1800s, Silesian immigrants
  • Barossa Old Vine Charter 2009 (pioneered by Yalumba)
  • Includes High Eden sub-region (harvest one month earlier, Pewsey Vale)
  • Low-fertility clay loam with sand -red-yellow brown loams over red clay
  • Soils are acidic
  • Largest pre-phylloxera plantings in world
  • 63% Syrah
  • Grenache dates back to 1848: Yalumba ‘Old Bush Vine’
  • Langmeil ‘The Freedom’ 1843: oldest Shiraz vines in world
  • Penfolds Kalimna Block 42 Cabernet Sauvignon
  • Arneis and Barbera also planted
487
Q

Eden Valley extras

A
  • South: Pewsey Vale vineyard 500 m, North: Henschke 380-400
  • Soils: shallow and rocky clay loams - dry farming
  • Barossa Grounds Project: influence of different areas on style
  • 30% Riesling, Eden Valley now has traditional bottle
  • Henschke ‘Hill of Grace’ old vine - plum and blackberry
  • Harvest mid-March to April (Barossa starts in February), High Eden later
488
Q

McLaren Vale extras

A
  • Between Gulf St. Vincent and Mount Lofty Ranges
  • First reclaimed-water network in Australia
  • Urban sprawl legislation passed 2012
  • Free-draining soils: sandy loams and loamy sands
  • 5% Grenache
  • Highest percentage of organic and biodynamic vineyards
  • Sustainable Winegrowing Australia started here, 2/3 of fruit by weight
  • Hardys Tintara Shiraz
  • Wirra Wirra: Shiraz, Grenache, Tempranillo/Touriga Amator
  • Yangarra single-vineyard Grenache - High Sands
  • PF Shiraz - wild yeast and cold soak for floral
  • Chardonnay, Vermentino, Fiano
489
Q

Clare Valley extras

A
  • Riesling producers started screwcap revolution in 2000
  • Generally water-retaining soils, 11 types: fertile alluvial
  • Polish Hill has grey loam and slate, Watervale has some terra rossa
  • Cordon training VSP typical, but canes increasing due to eutypa dieback
  • Slate and limestone
  • Off-dry Riesling experimentation
  • Mount Horrocks Watervale Riesling, organic - also grows Nero d’Avola
490
Q

Coonawarra extras

A
  • Originally planted with grapes such as Pedro Ximenez, then struggles in early 20th century
  • Debate about increasing area (soft brand of region name, diluting terroir)
  • Upwelling of ocean water (cold water rises to surface)
  • terra rossa is 1/3 clay, weathered limestone - brown rendzina in transitional zones
  • Cover crops: grass between rows, reduce spraying
  • Coonawarra Rootstock Trial: which performs best
  • Wynn’s Black Label: 21% new oak, screwcap
491
Q

Langhorne Creek

A
  • Similar hectarage to Barossa Valley’s 11,000 ha (largest after Riverland/Riverina)
  • Typically used for blends (not seen on labels)
  • Bleasdale Malbec
492
Q

Hunter Valley extras

A
  • First planted 1823 - Semillon used to be known as ‘Hunter River Riesling’
  • Hills of Brokenback Range (up to 250m)
  • Pokolbin in Lower Hunter has wineries and restaurants
  • Semillon prefers sandy alluvial flats, Shiraz in silty loamy hills
  • Harvest early January to mid-February
  • Semillon: gentle handling and crushing, cold temperature ferment
  • Tyrell’s Vat 1 Semillon
  • 27% Semillon (close to equal production of Syrah and Chardonnay)
493
Q

Central Ranges extras

A

Mudgee needs irrigation, Cab Sauvignon typically monovarietal
Orange has Ross Hill winery - only carbon neutral winery in Australia
Cowra has spring frost risk
Hilltops: ridges and hillside slopes for frost protection
Tumbarumba: decomposed granite
Lark Hill: Sangiovese, Shiraz/Viognier Tim Kirk

494
Q

Riverina

A

Lindeman’s sells Griffith botrytised Semillon, while De Bortoli’s Noble One is Wine of Australia

495
Q

Mornington Peninsula extras

A
  • Relatively new area (80s and 90s) - crash after gold rush
  • Bass Strait to south gives cool breezes
  • Ridge formed by ancient volcanic activity
  • Up the hill in the south, ripening weeks earlier
  • Fertile sand in north
  • Small-scale family vineyards, 1/2 pinot noir
  • Australian standard is 2.5-3.5 m width for mechanization
  • Hand pruning to lower disease risk and ensure sunlight access
  • Ten Minutes by Tractor is pioneering high density
  • Gravity-fed winemaking systems
  • Move to larger oak, concrete eggs, amphora
  • Pinot Noir Project: weather stations, different site comparisons
  • Red Hill Estate: line of wines exclusively sold at cellar door
496
Q

Yarra Valley extras

A

Production stopped in 1920 due to fortified demand, started again in 1960s
Dandenong Ranges to south
MJT less than 20 C, diurnal range low
Well draining Lower Yarra in north has grey loamy clay derived from GDR sandstone (acidic) - fertile Upper Yarra in south has red volcanic soil
Bailey Carrodus at Yarra Yering: dry farming, low yields
Experimentation: low sulphur, skin contact, whole bunches
Precision viticulture, soil mapping
Timo Mayer of Bloody Hill started at De Bortoli, started trend of whole bunch fermentation
Yarra Yering Dry Red wine no. 1 is Bordeaux blend w/whole bunch petit verdot/malbec

497
Q

Goulbourn extras

A

Warm climate, low rainfall, up to 400 m
Red and brown sandy clay loam: typical for SE Australia
Gravelly quartzose from Goulbourn River, which cools with lakes and billabongs
Tahbilk old-vine Marsanne has 6 years bottle-aging before release: lemon curd

498
Q

Margaret River extras

A

Harold Olmo UC Davis recommended planting
Leeuwin’s Art series 80s, Gin Gin clone
Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge (old soils, well-drained)
Mendoza clone
Small families, even red/white production
Birds are hazard before marri trees bloom
Cullen Wines carbon neutral, barrel ferment
Houghton Clone Cab Sauvignon, richer and rounder than Coonawarra

499
Q

Great Southern extras

A

Frankland River, catchment for various rivers, gravelly loam
Mount Barker coolest, diurnal range
Porongorup smallest, ancient granite peaks
less frost risk (air goes up mountains)
Lateritic gravel, sandy loams or granite and gneiss
Frankland River red soils
Porongorup deep karri loam
Albany+Denmark: higher vigor, more canopy management - hand picking
FR+MB some mechanization
Geographical isolation=labor scarcity
D+A have some dry farming, irrigation elsewheref

500
Q

Italy Overview

A

Etruscan and Greek influence, 8th century BCE
Roman Empire ends in 5th century, business halt until 11th-14th centuries
Genoa and Venice: trading centers
Florence: banking center, Antinori banks and investment in land/wine
Sharecropping: 13th century, landowners take ½ of production, peasants live and sell
Local consumption dominated, export by boat (land challenging)
Andrea Bacci: 16th century botanist discusses Italian varieties
End of 19th century: Chianti becomes Sangiovese-dominated
International varieties in early 20th century after phylloxera
Unification in 1861, economic boom after WWII
Focus on high yield and volume – from 70s, quality + export improved
Stainless steel tanks, temperature control: Friuli, 1960s
Super Tuscans in 1970s – Bordeaux blends, raise ambition
21st century – local varieties, success of Pinot Grigio and Prosecco
Traditional: pergolas in north, mixed planting Tuscany, bush vines in south
> 50,000 ha Sangiovese, 40,000 ha Pinot Grigio, 30,000 ha Catarratto

501
Q

Italy Winemaking

A

White winemaking from Germany (control) + French reds (small new oak)
Tradition: large Slavonian oak for controlled oxidation, no new oak
80s and 90s: boom of new oak with Bordeaux, Nebbiolo, Sangiovese
21st century: return to old oak, larger sizes or concrete

502
Q

Italy Law

A

Chianti outlined in 1716: fines for fraud
Denominazione di Origine Controllata: introduced in 1967
Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita: 1980
Supertuscans, Pergole Torte sold as vino da tavola and then IGT
Classico: historical center, Superiore: higher alcohol, Riserva: aging
Indicazione Geografica Tipica: wide range of styles and grapes, region
2008: DOP and IGP can be used, vino replaces vino da tavola – no year/varietal

503
Q

Italy Business

A

50 million hl on average, largest producer (except 2014)
Holdings < 2 ha: co-ops, merchant and large companies
Vino: 1/3, IGT: 1/4, DOP: 2/5
Caviro co-op: 10% of Italian grapes
Cantine Riunite, Zonin
Consumption down 1/3 in 100 years, spirits and beer on rise: export boom
40% exported – equal volume still and sparkling, 2/3 of value is still wine
Markets: USA (26%), Germany (18%)

504
Q

Friuli-Venezia-Giulia

A

75% white wine, 4% of country’s production (quality white monovarietal)
Warm maritime climate, flat Adriatic plains vs. hills: 1200 mm rain (disease), 46 N
Grave del Friuli DOC: volume production, Friuli Isonzo: right bank of river
Collio DOC: joined Italy 1914, becoming DOCG, yield 77 hl/ha, bora wind
Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC calcareous ponca marl/sandstone, 200 m hills
Single-variety whites from Friulano/Ribolla Gialla/Sauv./Char.

Winemaking: Mario Schiopetto 1960s, technical developments (control)
Orange wine: Oslavia sub-region of Collio, 1 week to 6 months skin contact
2-6 years in large oak, Josko Gravner pioneer: dried fruit, hay, nuts
organic, local+international, ambient yeast, no fining/filtering/SO2
Colli Orientali del Friuli Picolit DOCG, air-dried sweet, 10-15 berries
Ramandolo DOCG: Air-dried sweet Verduzzo
Friuli DOC: 2016, 98 hl/ha (high), quality across region

505
Q

Friuli-Venezia-Giulia Grapes

A

Pinot Grigio 25%, Merlot 15%, local white grapes Malvasia di Istria, Picolit
Local red grapes: Refosco, Tazzalenghe, Schioppettino, Welschriesling, Blaufränkisch = Franconia (connection with Austrian history)
Friulano (Tocai Friulano, Sauvignon Vert): disease resistant – good/v. good, mid/prem.
Medium (-) intensity, floral + apple, med/high alcohol, med (+) acidity
Ribolla Gialla: Collio/Colli Orientali, citrus+pepper with high acidity
Shot berries, style experimentation, oak, sparkling, sweet, amphora
Refosco: Refosco dal Pedunculo Rosso, vigorous hillside plantings
Late ripening, no botrytis, red fruit + herbs
Small berries, high tannin (oak)

506
Q

Friuli-Venezia-Giulia Business

A

Restaurants and specialist wine shop, export value up 50% in last 10 years
Focus on local reds: Refosco, Schioppetino (Ronchi di Cialla), Carso DOC
Competition: Trentino/Alto Adige for inexpensive whites, Eastern Europe
Consorzio Tutela Vini Collio

507
Q

Veneto Overview

A

Warm continental, moderate rainfall, cooling from Lake Garda to Venice, Po Delta to foothills of Alps – Italy’s largest wine region (PG/Prosecco)
Fog from Adige River, Po River valley: spraying, cooling from altitude
Flat plains: fertile soil, PG, international grapes, Corvina, Trebbiano
Merlot >10%, Corvina 10%

508
Q

Soave

A

Limestone, clay, basalt hills: cool soil and altitude slow ripening
Fertile, alluvial soils on plains: lower acidity, younger drinking
Garganega: Vigorous, productive, late-ripening (October) – good/v. good, inex/mid
Switch from pergola to trellising (hand in hills, machine in plains)
Mildew, botrytis and winter cold are hazards
High acidity, medium body, medium intensity lemon/white pepper/peach (almond, honey) – medium acidity on plains
Quality wines: cool ferment (16-18 C), months of lees aging
Soave DOC: 105 hl/ha, 70% Garganega, 30% Verdicchio/Chard, 5% OAG
Release from December 1 year of harvest, 80% of all production
Soave Classico DOC: 98 hl/ha, hilly region, same grapes
Release from February 1 after harvest, 20% of all production
Soave Superiore DOCG: 70 hl/ha, hilly region of Recioto, tiny production
Garganega makes concentrated wines at high yields, 2 years
Recioto di Soave DOCG: 36 hl/ha, air-dried grapes, floral/honey, sweet

Business: small growers (2 ha), large bottlers (10% small wineries)
Cantina di Soave co-op produces half of wine
Competition from Pinot Grigio, but 80% is exported (Germany + UK)
Soave Consorzio has classified single vineyards on hills: soil/aspect/height
509
Q

Valpolicella Grapes/Winemaking

A

Corvina Veronese: Vigorous, high yielding, thick skin for drying
Mid-late ripening, downy mildew, botrytis, esca and drought
Basal buds are infertile: pergola (for air circulation too)
Pergolas lower temp but lose water through evapotranspiration
Blends typical: violet, red cherry, low/medium tannin + high acidity
Allegrini La Poja is monovarietal, oak-aged example
Corvinone: Unrelated to Corvina, downy mildew
Uneven ripening means multiple vineyard passes (labor/cost)
Tannins and red cherry, also suitable for drying
Rondinella: Reliable, productive, good on various soils
Prone to esca, otherwise good disease resistance
Sugar accumulation (Recioto), neutral cherry
Molinara: High-yielding, pale color (unfashionable), acidity+ light red berry

Inexpensive winemaking:
	Controlled ferment at 20-25, 1 week maceration, 6-8 months aging
	Appassimento (style is passito): harvest early at 11-11.5%, clean
	Let dry in fruttai lofts for 3-4 months on arele Single bunch layer, check for mold + rotate 1/3 of grape weight lost: anthocyanins, tannins, sugar, acidity higher Chemical changes: more glycerol, softer mouthfeel
510
Q

Valpolicella Law

A

Wine law: Corvina/Corvinone 45-95%, Rondinella 5-30%, max. 25% other authorized with no single variety more than 10% (aromatic varieties 10%)

Valpolicella DOC: 83 hl/ha, bright purple, red cherry/rose, med (+) acidity - good
Valpolicella Classico DOC: good to very good, more concentrated
Valpolicella Valpantena DOC: Grapes grown in Valpantena valley
Superiore: min 12% ABV, 1 year of aging
Romano dal Forno uses many years of aging, not typical

Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG: Sweet, semi-dried – whole DOC/Classico
Dried 100-120 days for 14% potential, max. 48 hl/ha
12% ABV, 2.8% ABV residual sugar (50 g/l) – v.good/outstanding, premium
Traditional, unfashionable: red fruit, full body, med(+)/high tannin

Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG: Modern dry/off-dry interpretation
	Same yield, geography and ABV as Recioto – good/outst, mid-premium
	14% ABV min., max. 9 g/l sugar (up to 12 for higher alcohol)
	Two years aging in large cask, Riserva is 4 years
	Cherry/dried fruit/spice, high acidity, med/high tannins
	New oak or oxidative old oak, quality varies due to popularity

Valpollicella Ripasso DOC: Skins from Recioto or Amarone finishing ferment added to new Valpolicella wine after press, sugar restarts fermentation
Min. 3 days ferment w/transferred yeast: add color, tannin and flavor – good/v.good
Min. 12.5% ABV (13% for Superiore), up to 15% Amarone added
1 year aging, often in old oak: med/full body, med(+)tannin, stewed fruit
IGP wines in this style made w/dried grape wine mix w/regular wine

511
Q

Valpolicella Business

A

80% of producers represented by Valpollicella Consorzio: marketing/promotion/research+sustainability
Amarone grown 6x since 1990s, Ripasso 4x to 2016, Recioto static
Valpolicella dropped 40%, reflecting popularity of other styles
Amarone is 10 million bottles (1/4 of grapes) – sub-regions not specified, 50% max
Sustainability initiative: 60% of members, growth (reduce respect retrench)

512
Q

Veneto DOCs

A

Pinot Grigio delle Venezie DOC
Replaced IGP in 2017 (new Trevenezie IGP does not allow Pinot Grigio)
Three provinces, 85% of Italy’s PG (40% of world’s): yield 126 hl/ha -good, inex/mid
Popular DOC, local DOCs also used: light/medium(-body), medium(+)acidity

Bardolino DOC, Bardolino Superiore DOCG
Lake Garda (cooling), light bodied red/rosé: 35-80% Corvina, 20% Corvinone
Up to 95% Corvina is now allowed, 15% Molinara
Yields 91 hl/ha, ABV 11% for Superiore (+0.5), Chiaretto rosé medium salmon

Bianco di Custoza
Between Verona and Lake Garda, easy drinking Trebbiano, Friulano, Cortese
Dominated by Italian market

Lugana DOC
Vineyards in Lombardy, bottled in Veneto: Turbiana = Verdicchio, citrus/hazelnut/saline, best in oak

513
Q

Trentino

A

Moderate continental, mountains shelter from wind, Lake Garda and valley floor moderate temperatures: good/v. good quality, inexpensive to mid priced (some prem)
Cold air from mountains: diurnal range, freshness
Winemaking: Soft press, stainless steel, low temps (12-16)
75% white: PG, M-T unoaked
80% cooperatives (Cavit has 60% of wine, PICA system), 10% estates
Yields: white 100 hl/ha, reds 90 hl/ha
Indigenous grapes: Teroldego Rotaliano DOC, sandy gravel in north
(Vini delle Dolomiti outside of geographical area)
Stem drying, mildew resistant, clones 145+152 aromatic
Pergolas (yield) and Guyot
Marzemino: Ziresi zone of Trentino DOC, sun+calcareous clay/basalt
Botrytis, powery mildew, shift from pergolas to spur/cordon
Lagrein: Bitter finish, short maceration/oak: rubino/dunkel, rosato/kratzer
Poor fruit set, low yields, needs warmth and sun
Moscato Rosa: Rose aroma, sweet wines: appassimento or late harvest
Poor fruit set, botrytis – premium wines
Nosiola: Hazelnut, Vino Santo premium semi-dried (dry wines mid-priced)
Valley of the Lakes is warmest region: spring frost, mildew, sour rot

Winemaking: 12-16 cool for whites, moderate 17-20 for reds, 1 week skin
	Premium 26-32 degrees, small oak

Law: Bianco min. 80% Chardonnay/Pinot Bianco, Rosso: Cabs, Carmenere
Single varietal 85%, two-varietal 50-75% of first-named
Rosato from Lagrein, Enanto, Schiava (only Lagrein as monovarietal)
Moscato Rosa Liquoroso: 85%

Business: Small holdings (1.2 ha), grower focused
Trentodoc, Rotaliano and M-T are popular in Italian restaurants
514
Q

Alto-Adige

A

Alpine continental climate, 300-700 m (hand harvest on slopes)
Dolomites+Tramin, 300 sun days: 60% white, 40% red
Soils: volcanic porphyry, quartz, Dolomitic limestone
Bassa Atesina: warm south, everything but Schiava – high altitude M-T
Oltradige: Lake Caldaro, Schiava: low Merlot/Cab, high pinot noir (Franz Haas)
Schiava: = Vernatsch, four clones – vigorous, pergola, violet+strawberry
Santa Magdalena DOC 15% Lagrein
Winemaking: Fruit focus, cool ferment (12-15), fine lees 6 months/year
Careful canopy management for sunburn risk
Schiava 14%, Pinot Noir 10%
98% DOC wines: Bianco is Chardonnay+Pinots (min. 2, no more than 70%)
Two variety: at least 15% of blend each
White yield 90 hl/ha (lower than Trentino)
Alois Lageder has 50 hectares, Cantina Kaltern co-op
Avg. holdings 1 ha, co-ops 70%
Market: 75% domestic sales, ½ local for tourism: hospitality+special retail
Germany+USA, 9 markets – good/v. good quality, inexpensive to mid-priced

515
Q

Piemonte Nebbiolo

A

Moderate continental, hazards thunderstorms, fog, hail and frost, 45 N (high)
Low rain June to September, autumn rain in Sept/Oct
Nebbiolo: early budding, very late ripening: pronounced rose, tar, violet, red plum
High acidity and tannins, garnet fast
Best on calcareous soils + SW slopes, Single Guyot (mechanical trimming)
High training (low basal fertility)
Massal selection (low vigor, small berries): Gaja
Clonal research for deeper color (does this improve quality)
Barolo DOCG: 200-400 m, S/SW slopes for long ripening
2,000 ha (doubled since 1980s), yield 56 hl/ha
Aging: Three years two months, 18 in oak – Riserva five years two months
Soil: blue grey Sant’Agata fossil marl, Tortonian – NW La Morra, drink early
Yellow grey sand + clay in SE (Serravallian, Serralunga d’Alba – long aging
Multi-vineyard blends: Bartolo Mascarello, single vineyard: Gaja
Single vineyards such as Cannubi, Cannubi Valletta – v.good/outstanding, prem.
Menzioni Geografiche Aggiuntive 2010: villages/vineyards/groups (Terlo)
Barolo Chinato: Sweetened Barolo wine w/herbs
Barbaresco DOCG: 1/3 area of Barolo, lower altitude: harvest 1 week earlier
Riper style, same yields: 2 years for regular, 4 years for Riserva (9 months barrel)
MGAs such as Martinenga introduced in 2017 – v. good/outstanding, prem
Traditional wine: 3-4 months on skins, 5-8 years Slavonian botti
Modern style: 3-4 weeks on skins, ripe seeds, large oak or French mix
Roero DOCG also allows Nebbiolo (95%, same for Bianco w/Arneis)
Gattinara, Ghemme DOCG: continental, 300 m: light bodied, intense
Valtellina in Lombardy, 750 m – blended w/local varieties
Langhe Nebbiolo/Nebbiolo d’Alba DOC: young vines, less extracted
Neutral aging for one year, also used to declassify

Small, family-owned, limited consolidation
Buying grapes: Fontanafredda in past, now estate bottling typical
Exports: 85% Barolo and 75% Barbaresco, to US/Germany/UK, Scandinavia
Collectors + en primeur, named sub-zones

516
Q

Piemonte Other

A

Barbera: Asti, Alba and Monferrato (Asti + Nizza sub-zone best) – good/v.good, inex/mid
Early budding (frost), vigorous, disease resistant but fan leaf
Hard pruning for quality, variety of sites: traditional frizzante
Now still, medium tannin/high acidity, red plum and red cherry
Giacomo Bologna: French oak, aging capacity
Barbera d’Asti DOCG: 63 hl/ha yield, 4 months aging
Nizza DOCG: 49 hl/ha, 18 months aging, 6 in oak
Piemonte DOC: 84 hl/ha

Dolcetto: Early ripening, cooler sites, fragile + fungal, low vigor and cold
Decreasing due to difficulties and popularity of Nebbiolo
Reductive: pumping over or rack and return for oxygen
Moderate fermentation temps, short skin contact (1-2 weeks)
Soft extraction then steel/cement - good/v.good, inex/mid
Dolcetto d’Alba DOC: 63 hl/ha
Dolcetto di Ovada DOC+Dogliani DOCG: 56 hl/ha
Med(-) acidity, med(+) tannins, red cherry and floral

Cortese: High yield, light intensity: lemon/apple, white flower, med. Body
	Thin skin, grey rot: mid-range temp w/some skin contact
	Gavi/Cortese di Gavi DOCG: 100% Cortese, 67 hl/ha, Riserva 45
	Gavi di Gavi DOCG: 100% Cortese from municipality
	La Scolca is producer – good quality, inex/mid priced

Arneis: Light intensity, chamomile, flower, peach, loses acidity = med(-)
	Oxidation in winery, Roero Arneis DOCG: yields 70 hl/ha, Vietti

Law: No PGI in Piemonte (many varieties in DOC)
517
Q

Tuscany Overview

A

Warm Mediterranean, adequate rain (700-800 mm), altitude for cooling
Autumn and winter rain, hot summers: frost, hail, harvest rain, drought+heat
Duke of Medici delineation in 1716, Barone Ricasoli Sangiovese 1872 (Malvasia)
1932: Chianti extended, historical Chianti Classico named
Sharecropping – low quality incentives, aristocracy and foreigners after WWII
Sassicaia 1968, Tignanello 1971: new French oak (vino da tavola)
DOCs created in 80s and 90s, Chianti Classico DOCG 1996
Sangiovese: early budding, late ripening, high tannins+acidity, pale, vigorous, yield
Red cherry, plum, herbal, frost + rain, botrytis, esca (pruning), boar (fence)
Grown from 200 to 550 m (prolonged season for maturity)
Well-draining shale/limestone as well as clay, cordon/cane + VSP
Historical: 30 days on skin, large oak 3-4 years, now 1 week to 1 month
Trebbiano Toscano: late budding, vigorous, yield, downy+eutypa
High acidity and neutral, being replaced by red
Blending grapes: Canaiolo Nero for red berry, floral, light tannin (fruit)
Colorino for color, international such as Merlot/Cab Sauv (too dominant?)

518
Q

Chianti

A

CHIANTI DOCG: no oak required, Riserva is 2 years aging – 63 hl/ha
Min. 70% Sangiovese, max. 15% Cabernets – acceptable/v. good, inex/mid
CHIANTI RUFINA DOCG: Smallest, cool @ 300 m, 56 hl/ha, wind from Apennine pass
Lack of investment means lower quality standards (potential) – mid-pr., good/out
Selvapiana and Frescobaldi, Riserva has 6 month oak aging requirement
CHIANTI COLLI SENESI DOCG: Largest, warmest: min. 75% Sangiovese, max. 10% Cabs
CHIANTI CLASSICO DOCG: Yield 52.5 hl/ha, historical center 200-500 m(varying aspects)
Galestro friable marl (acidity, aging), albarese calcareous clay (structure, body)
(Drainage and water-retaining capacity are balanced)
Release 1 year after harvest, Riserva 2 years (no oak) -v.good/out, mid-prem
Min. 80% Sangiovese (typically 90% w/Canaiolo/Merlot)
Vineyard names can go on label, villages cannot
Gran Selezione 2013: Single vineyard/estate, 30 months aging, min. 90% w/indigenous grapes, organoleptic characteristics, 13% ABV, 4.5 g/l acidity

519
Q

Brunello di Montalcino Docg

A

100% Sangiovese, 54 hl/ha, 2000 ha (200 producer)
Monte Amiata rain protection (drier/warmer than Classico, benefits from aging)
5 years, 2 in oak (Riserva 6 years, 2 in oak) - outstanding, premium
Rosso DOC = 1 year, declassified (2014): Biondi Santi every year mid, good/v.
1865 by Biondi-Santi family, expansion in 1970s with Banfi
Galestro in cool north, clay in warm south
Mediterranean breezes, altitude 120 m to 500 m

520
Q

Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG

A

70% Sangiovese (Prunolo Gentile)
56 hl/ha, planted 250-600 m on E/SE slopes of clay and sand soil
Two years aging, one in oak (Riserva 3 years, 1 year in oak, 6 months bottle)
Mid-premium price, v.good/outst

521
Q

Morellino di Scansano DOCG

A

250 m altitude, sea winds moderate

63 hl/ha, 85% Sangiovese – medium(+) acidity/tannin, good/v. good, inex/mid

522
Q

Bolgheri

A

BOLGHERI DOC: 1983, 63 hl/ha w/1 year aging – 1200 ha: Bordeaux (80%), white, rosé
High acidity, medium(+) tannins, blackberry/red plum
Sea winds, cool nights: up to 400 m and lower, irrigation and cordon-spur VSP
High density (6,000 hl/ha) competition/cost
Up to 100% Cabs/Merlot, max. 50% Syrah/Sangiovese (other max. 30%)
Rosso Superiore: 56 hl/ha, 2 years w/1 in barrel – v. good/out, premium
Rapid growth, 10 producers own 70% of vineyards, Consorzio represents 90%
BOLGHERI SASSICAIA DOC: Tenuta San Guido, estate: 80% Cab, 18 months 225l oak
MAREMMA TOSCANA DOC: 77 hl/ha, half Sangiovese, followed by Cab/Vermentino
Le Pupille is significant producer – inex/mid priced

523
Q

Vernaccia di San Gimignano DOCG

A

Italy’s first DOC in 1966
200-400 m: sun + drainage, dry windy summer, 10% Sauvignon B./Riesling
Sandstone slopes, mid-late ripening
30% sold locally, 50% export to US, Germany+Switzerland
DOC for Sangiovese etc. – inex. – mid price
Yield 63 hl/ha
tourism, consorzio carbon footprint

524
Q

Tuscany Business

A

TOSCANA IGT: min. 11% ABV, Solaia (Antinori Cabs/Sangiovese) – inex./mid

2/3 of production from DOCGs: CC – Chianti – Brunello lead value
Co-ops 14% in Chianti, much lower in other regions Chianti DOCG 1/3 Tetrabrik, highest selling wine in Italy (volume and value) Half of wine in bottle, supermarkets and deep discounters
Export: 80% Chianti Classico (US 1/3)+Montepulciano (Germany, Switzerland)
	70% Chianti (Germany, US, UK)+Montalcino (US, Canada)
Marketing: CC+Montepulciano historical, Bolgheri+Montalcino world-class
Tourism and anteprima (Chianti lovers) for pros, opening up to wider audience
Supermarkets/bars for inexpensive, better restaurants/specialist for premium
525
Q

Vin Santo DOC

A

Chianti min. 70% Malvasia Bianca Lunga/Trebbiano Toscano
Chianti Classico min. 60%, 2 years in barrel
Montepulciano 3 years barrel, Pulcinculo allowed up to 70%
Dried, loft storage w/fluctuating temp.: dried fruit, nut, volatile
Sweet, high alcohol, high acidity – premium price (time+small batches)
Occhio di Pernice: 50% Sangiovese in Chianti/Montepulciano, 80% in CC
Avignonesi, min. 6 years barrel

526
Q

Marche Whites

A

Adriatic Sea to Apennines, Sangiovese + Montepulciano 20%, Verdicchio
Inexpensive, mid-priced: warm Mediterranean, low coastal hills (W Ancona continental)
Limestone/clay soils
Verdicchio: unfruitful first buds, low density, late ripening + high yield, all mildews
Blossom, apple, fennel, almond, bitter, med. body, high acidity (med- intensity)
MLF avoided for inexpensive, 4-6 months steel (Riserva MLF for creamy, old oak)
Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio DOC: Floral and fruity, hills w/of Ancona (clay + limestone)
98 hl/ha, Classico Superiore 77 hl/ha – Riserva DOCG 18 months aging
Verdicchio di Matelica DOC: Apennine foothills, continental (longer season)
Sandstone/fossils: higher acidity and fuller body, Riserva DOCG 18 months
Pecorino: basal buds sterile, high alcohol, early ripening, high acidity
Apple, pear, thyme, mint, medium body -growing in popularity
Offida Pecorina DOCG: growing popularity, 12-18 months oak common
Can also be sold as Marche IGT Offida Passerina DOCG has +0.5% min. alcohol
Passerina: late ripening, loses acidity, ripe lemon/yellow apple
Biancame+Trebbiano Toscano: fresh local grape for easy drinking

527
Q

Marche Reds

A

Montepulciano: Powdery mildew, reductive (aeration/pumping over)
Uneven ripening raises sorting cost or lowers quality
Deep ruby, red cherry to black plum, medium/medium(+tannins) and body
Rosso Piceno DOC: 35-85% Montepulciano, Sangiovese (adds acidity)
Rosso Piceno Superiore DOC: Higher quality, 13 Ascoli Piceno townships, +0.5% alc.
Offida Rosso DOCG: 24 months, 12 in barrel, 13% ABV, 85% Montepulciano
Rosso Conero DOC/Conero Riserva DOCG: 85% Montepulciano, Riserva 2 years/1 wood

528
Q

Marche Business

A

IMT (Marchigiano Tutela Vini): ¾ of denominations, 80% of exports
Umani Ronchi exports 70%, 1/3 of region exported by value: US/China/Japan
Verdicchio suffering from competition with Pinot Grigio

529
Q

Umbria

A

Warm, continental-ish, 800 mm of autumn/winter rain (hazard/late harvest), organic
Grechetto di Orvieto: Thick skin, late harvest, resists downy mildew
High acidity, medium body, low intensity lemon/white flower
Sagrantino: Moderate yield, 220-470 m for full sun
Hazards: spiders on fuzzy underside, lobesia botrana, mildews
High acidity, v. high tannins, blackberry/red plum
Orvieto DOC: 60% Grechetto/TT, same altitudes as Sagrantino
77 hl/ha, Superiore is 56 hl/ha (March after harvest) -acc/good, inex/mid
Vendemmia tardiva, muffa nobile (16% potential ABV)
Montefalco Rosso DOC: 77 hl/ha, 60-70% Sangiovese, 10-15% Sangiovese
18 months aging, 30% other grapes
Sagrantino di Montefalco DOCG: 100% Sagrantino, 52 hl/ha, 33 months (1 year wood)
Single vineyard, 13% ABV – Arnaldo Caprai Spinning Beauty French barriques
Consorzio Montefalco: weather station, disease threat
Growth 4x this century = 650 ha (like Barbaresco)
60% export (US, Germany, Canada) – v. good/out, mid-premium

530
Q

Abruzzo

A

Warm continental hillsides, warm Mediterranean flat+fertile coast for volume
Tradition: pergola+low density (2,500 vines/ha)
Trebbiano Abruzzese: Mid-late ripening, vigorous, high yield (pergola shade), powdery
Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC: Either Trebbiano, 98 hl/ha, protective and MLF blocked
Cool fermentation, steel - Valentini makes super-premium example
Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo DOC: 85% Montepulciano, color used to be deeper
Any rosé method (short maceration, direct press, saignée): high anthocyanins
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC: Two styles, can be 15% Merlot/Primitivo
Hilly sites: 98 hl/ha, subzones 66 hl/ha, 18 months (Casauria 100% Montepul.)
Riserva+sub-zones require 9 monhts barrel age,
Colline Teramane DOCG: 2 years, 1 in wood – 90% Montepul, Riserva 3 years
Business: 40 co-ops produce ¾ of wine, inexpensive export to North Europe/America
Cantina Tollo: exports 1/3 of its production
DOC wine can be bottle outside of region (criticism) inex./mid (oak), DOCG premium

531
Q

Lazio

A

Warm Mediterranean, low hills/sea wind: frost, hail, heat, harvest rain
70% white wines (Malvasia/Trebbiano), Falesco produces quality
Malvasia Bianca di Candia: Neutral, light body, medium(+) acidity, yield + resistance
Subject to oxidation (protective handling, fining)
Malvasia del Lazio: Muscat of Alexandria x Schiava Grossa (grape/peach, acidity drops)
Popular in 60s, dropping due to difficulty (Malvasia Puntinata)
Cesanese: Late ripening, high yield, medium tannin/acidity, cherry/rose
Slopes up to 600 m for fresh fruit/acidity
Cesanese del Piglio DOCG: min. 90%
Frascati DOC: 70% Malvasias, 30% TT and Bombino Bianco, Greco: 105 hl/ha (diluted)
Cool fermentation quick release -acc/good, inex-mid
Frascati Superiore DOCG: 77 hl/ha, 1 year aging (20% of region), good/v good, mid
Castelli Romani: more white than red, 120 hl/ha w/Malvasia/Trebbiano/Verdicchio
Inexpensive local drinking: Cesanese di Affile DOC, Olevano Romano (65-70 hl/ha)
Business: High volume harms reputation, vines drop 15%
Exports 60%, co-ops 20% - US, Canada, Germany
Local demand in Rome, tourists - Casal Pilozzo quality

532
Q

Campania

A

Warm Mediterranean, 200-600 m slopes (frost pockets, rainy autumn)
Hills: limestone/clay, volcanic tuff/pumice/sand @ Naples, Alluvial Sannio/Beneventano
Local varieties, often monovarietal – DOCGs all on limestone and clay
Falanghina: 2nd most planted, workhorse (resistant but grapes shrivel)
Mid-late ripening, peach and herb, unoaked, med(+)acidity, acceptable/v. good
Falanghina del Sannio DOC (1/3 of plantings), Campi Flegrei, 84 hl/ha – lower alc.
Greco: Low-yielding, drought-resistant and heat tolerant, rot and mildews
Harvest long, 1st week October
Greco di Tufo DOCG: Limestone, clay: 70 hl/ha, high alcohol, oily, floral/smoke
5% of plantings, min. 85% Greco, max. 15% Coda di Volpe – v.good, mid/prem
Fiano: Mildews, thick skin protects from botrytis, late ripening (mid-late October)
Floral, peach, hazelnut, wax, med/(+) acidity, 70 hl/ha, max. 15% Coda di Volpe
Sandy soils for lighter wines, clay for fuller body (Avellino DOCG limestone)
V. good/outstanding, mid. prem
Aglianico: early budding, late ripening: vigorous, yield control, botrytis
High acid/tannins, Med(+) rose, red plum, blackberry – slopes for longer season
Spur/cordon, medium density: some mechanization
Taurasi DOCG: 85% Aglianico, 70 hl/ha – 3 years, 1 wood (Riserva 4, 18 months)
Harvest end October/early November, 50% export (USA)
V. good/outstanding, mid. prem
Piedirosso: pale ruby, med(+) acidity, red plum/cherry, dry/windy (600 mm) less mildew
Thick skin, open bunches: less botrytis, softens Aglianico or easy drinking
Campi Flegrei DOC, Vesuvio DOC: 50% Piedirosso, max. 30% Aglianico
Sandy soils: no grafting needed – mid/Premium
Ischia (also Garnacha), Capri as well
BUSINESS: Irpinia DOC: Avellino province (GrFiAgl 50), Sannio DOC: Benevento province
La Guardiense co-op (1,000 members) 15% of Benevento wines
Export growth double Italian average in past 10 years

533
Q

Basilicata

A

Warm Mediterranean, IGT or ‘vino’ dominate production,
>45% Aglianico, irrigation not allowed – French barriques increasing
Aglianico del Vulture DOC: 100% Aglianico, clay/limestone/volcanic lava ash soils
East of Monte Vulture, 1 year aging, 70 hl/ha – volcanic soils drain, limestone retains
Altitude up to 600 m, Balkan breezes, Elena Fucci
Superiore DOCG: 52 hl/ha, 3 years aging/1 oak (Riserva 5 years, 2 in oak), d’Angelo
Very good to outstanding, mid-premium price
Export half (USA/China/Japan/North Europe), Generazione Vulture for promotion

534
Q

Puglia

A

ot Mediterranean, sea breezes (surrounded): fertile soils, irrigation, volume (dry)
15% Sangiovese/Primitivo/Negroamaro
Primitivo: High yield, uneven, early budding/ripening: frost, drought/poor flowering
Looser bunches/more resistant than California, old vine bush, low density
Jammy/dry fruit, med acidity, med(+) tannins, all quality levels
7-10 days maceration for cheap wines, 6 months in steel/old oak
EU vine pull, popularity of California Zinfandel – Gianfranco Fino in Manduria
Primitivo di Manduria DOC: 85% Primitivo, 63 hl/ha: Riserva 2.5 aging, 9 in wood, 14%
Gioia del Colle DOC: 50-60% Primitivo w/Montepulciano/Sangiovese/Negroamaro
10% Malvasia Nera, 52 hl/ha, Riserva 2 years (no wood, 14%, 250-500 m hills
producer: Polvanera
Negroamaro: High yield, drought resistant, alcohol and body to cooler wines
Salice Salentino DOC: 75% Negroamaro (90% on label)
84 hl/ha, Riserva 2 years (6 wood), black plum/cherry, med acidity, med(+)tannin
Rosato popular (Leone de Castris), wines good/v. good, inexpensive-mid-price
Nero di Troia: Late ripening, downy mildew, uneven (long season, multiple passes)
Red cherry/redcurrent, fine-grained high tannin, good/v. good, mid/prem Rivera
Castel del Monte DOC: 91 hl/ha, Riserva DOCG 70 hl/ha, 2 years/1 wood
Business: 60% vino, <10% PDO, Cantina Due Palme (1,000 members), Tormaresca Antinori

535
Q

Sicily

A

Warm Mediterranean island, Etna microclimates, low rainfall (irrigation)
Med. temp fermentation for large production white wines
Catarrato: >30%, high yield+resistant – lemon/herb, high acidity, inexpensive, acc./good
Grillo: Catarrato x Moscato – overexposed bunches lose aroma, high yield/resistance
Oxidation, full body, lemon+floral -good/v. good, inex./mid
Inzolia (Ansonica): Early ripening, drought resist, medium falling acidity/body
Used in blends w/higher acidity wines acc.good, inexpensive (Valle dell’Acate)
Alcamo Bianco DOC: 60% Catarrato, 84 hl/ha (40% other, Müller-Thurgau) - west
Moscato (Zibibbo): Pantelleria, sun/drying winds, all styles, low bush vines in holes:
Dry (steel), late harvest (1 week later, stop ferment), passito (sun-dried/semi)
Portion of fruit picked early, dried 1 month and blended w/ripe (15% ABV)
V. good/outstanding, premium/super-premium (Donnafugata all styles)
Nero d’Avola: Late ripening, close to ground, vigor (canopy): powdery, uneven flowers
Medium/deep ruby, cherry/black plum, med/(+) acidity, med(+)/high tannin
DOC yields 70-77 ha, also IGT/wine – low yield can be v. good/outst, mid/prem.
Cerasuolo di Vittoria: 50-70% Nero d’Avola, 30-50% Frappato (strawberry/herbal, 52 hl
Nerello Mascalese: Early budding, late ripening, coulure, powdery, botrytis
Etna, 400-1,000 meters (deleafing timing), short maceration (Graci longer)
Cherry/violet, high acidity, med/high tannins
Etna Rosso DOC: 80% Nerello Mascalese, 20% Nerello Cappuccio (color/red berry)
10% white grapes allowed, best fr. old 100-year vines - v. good/oust., mid/prem
Slopes = manual labor, 56 hl/ha yield, Riserva 4 year (1 in oak), large neutral oak
Carricante: Etna Bianco DOC min. 60%, up to 100% for quality – high altitude, fungus
MLF typical, old oak for texture
Law: Sicilia DOC 2011 (white 94 hl/ha, red 84 hl/ha): bottling not required in area at first
Grillo+Nero d’Avola popular
Business: Private companies: Planeta, Donnafugata, Settesoli co-op has 7% (6000 ha)
Bulk wine typical (20% bottled), Assovini Sicily 80% by value, promotion
Nero d’Avola boom in 1990s, short-lived: Etna Rosso specialist retail/bars

536
Q

Sardinia

A

Warm Mediterranean, low rain – NW sufficient, SE needs irrigation – altitude
Warm libeccio and scirocco winds are drying, less fungal
Cannonau di Sardegna DOC: 77 hl/ha, 63 hl/ha Classico: Riserva 2 years, 6 oak – 30%
Classico – 2 years, 1 oak (Ogliastra province), 90% Cannonau
Vermentino: Early-budding, mid-ripening, downy, moths, sunny site w/poor soil
Gentle pressing, skin contact, 3-4 months on fine lees -15%
Vermentino di Sardegna DOC: 112 hl/ha, Vermentino di Galllura DOCG: NE, 63 hl/ha
Carignano: 10%, low-fertility soils moderate vigor
Carignano del Sulcis DOC: Bush vines (required for Superiore category)
Irrigation allowed but not after veraison, good/v. good, inex/premium
77 hl/ha, Superiore 52.5 hl/ha (2 years aging, for Riserva as well)
Quality wines: 15 days, warm ferment (extraction), 12-18 months in French oak
Business: Bulk wine, funding from region and EU for co-ops, local grape Monica Nera
Vineyard area reduced w/EU removal subsidies
2/3 of wine is PDO, Cantina Santadi (Giacomo Tachis) significant co-op
Exports stable, Sella & Mosca for Cannonau

537
Q

Argentina Environment

A

Vineyard management companies like Napa valley due to label shortage
Low latitude+high altitude = intense sun, UV: more tannins/anthocyanins
High diurnal range (>20 degrees), continental climate <200mm rain
El Niño: higher rain, hail: 2016 destroyed 25% around country, 40% Mendoza
Alluvial soils: high calcareous middle gravel/silt, low loamy/clay
Andes rain shadow, warm zonda wind – vineyards from 500 m to 1,000m+ gentle slopes
Poplars grown as windbreakers – netting for hail only on prized sites
200,000 ha (100,000 pulled in vine pull scheme), 30% older than 40 (Malbec/Semillon)
Frost is a problem in flat areas/bottom of slope, at all altitudes
70% flood irrigation (old channeling systems) – phylloxera protection, free-draining
Drip irrigation growing: cheaper on new sloped vineyards (or only boreholes available)
Sustainable given water shortages in La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza
Large amounts in winter (replicate rain), low amounts in growing season (root growth)
Parral pergola traditional, for Torrontés in warm areas (shade for acidity retention)
Also for high-vigor Criolla grapes
VSP becoming more common (canopy management, drip irrigation)
Sandy soil and arid climate mean phylloxera low risk, but nematodes/drought = grafting
Organic and biodynamic ideal due to dryness (practices growing, certification low)
Hand harvest traditional (casual labor): cost of living rising, so mechanical harvest grows
Clonal selection work by Nicolás Catena, and harvest timing – single vineyard increasing
New areas (higher altitudes, further south, closer to Atlantic)

538
Q

Argentina History

A

Spanish planted grapes 1550s, Argentina independence 1816: European immigration
1851: school/research center, grapes arrived before phylloxera (Europeans followed)
Criolla grapes: Cereza, Criolla Grande/Chica – sustained by high domestic consumption
Consumption falls in 70s: export focus in 80s and 90s w/open economy
Foreign investment and consultants (Michel Rolland, Alberto Antonini)
Weak peso in 2000s made for cheap wine on export markets: Malbec (fluctuations)

539
Q

Argentina Law

A

IP (Indicación de Procedencia): Large geographical areas, not whole country
IG (Indicación Geográfica): Certain quality level in specific quality area
DOC: specific area with legally defined winemaking criteria: Luján de Cuyo+San Rafael
Region (Cuyo) – Province (Mendoza) – Sub region (Uco valley) – Department (San Carlos)
District (La Consulta) – GI (Paraje Altamira)
GI/DOC: only grapes from area, 85% for vintage or variety (same for blend)
Reserva: 12 months for reds, 6 months whites Gran Reserva: 24 months for reds, 12 white

540
Q

Argentina red grapes

A

Criollas are 20% (Cereza 2nd planted), red grapes >50%
Malbec: Vigorous, mid-ripening, 20% of plantings – high soft tannins, full body
Smaller berries/bunches, softer tannins than French – range of quality/price
45,000 ha planted, cooler sites are fresher/floral, med(+)tannins
Bonarda: Late ripening, high yielding (San Juan+warmer Mendoza) – large/old oak
Fruity and deep color: blending w/Malbec or Cabernet Sauvignon - >85% domestic
Cabernet Sauvignon: Extreme temp and fungus more a problem than for Malbec
Premium wines blended w/Malbec, Argentinian lacks herbaceous character
Syrah: San Juan and Mendoza, full body + high alcohol
Tempranillo: medium body, red fruit, oak spice
Merlot: Bordeaux blends, on decline
Pinot Noir: Patagonia and high Uco Valley
Cabernet Franc: Quality potential alone or blended w/Malbec, Petit Verdot/Tannat
European tradition: large oak barrels, oxidation – switch to modern w/investment
Later harvest, temp control, new oak barrels (oak flavors and full bodied)
Now: earlier harvest fresher fruit, lower alcohol, whole bunch, concrete eggs, blending

541
Q

Argentina white grapes

A

White wine: Pedro Giménez (10,000 ha), neutral inexpensive for domestic
High altitude and earlier harvest, cooler ferment: fruity, high acidity, lower alcohol
Torrontés: Riojano, Sanjuanino, Mendocino – Riojano is Muscat Alex. x Criolla Chica
Mid-budding, early-ripening: over ripens (high alcohol, bitterness)
Lowered yields, early harvest, temp control: fruity, less floral, lower alcohol
Cafayate (Salta) is main region, or high Uco – drunk young, some oak for best
Can be blended w/Sauvignon Blanc, or made into sweet late harvest wine
Chardonnay: Uco Valley, ripe stone fruit/tropical but still med(+)/high acidity
Sémillon+Chenin Blanc, cheap domestic – Sauvignon Blanc+Viognier growing

542
Q

Mendoza Overview

A

75% of vineyard area, 2/3 of production, 62% black, 22% pink
GI for entire province and many smaller are being recognized – 33-34 N
Five divisions: North, East, Central, Uco Valley, Southern – often blended
North and East: low (500-700m), irrigation from Mendoza+Tunuyán Rivers
Large volume inexpensive, some quality from low-yielding Tempranillo+Bonarda

543
Q

Central Mendoza

A

‘Primera Zona’, longest history (headquarters to many still)
600-1,100 m: Malbec, Cab Sauvignon, Syrah and Tempranillo
Luján de Cuyo: SW of Mendoza city, 900-1,100 m (>50% Malbec, old vines)
DOC Luján de Cuyo: 24 months aging, 12 oak (not typical, usually only Malbec)
GI Luján de Cuyo: contains smaller GIs, i.e. Ugarteche
Las Compuertas: highest, fruity full bodied Malbec/Bordeaux
Diurnal range for med(+) acidity, firm tannins (aging), elegant Cha/SB
Agrelo: Lower clay soils, riper fruit, full bodied Semillon (Catena w/Chenin)
Maipú: to East, SE of Mendoza, 600-900 m, old vines
Higher alcohol+softer tannins, full bodied Malbec
Catena’s Angelica Vineyard still has flood channels (oldest)
Low sites: inexpensive wines, or quality Cab Sauv, Syrah, Temp/Bonarda

544
Q

Uco Valley

A

Tunuyán River valleys, 850-1,500m+ for Malbec and premium whites
Higher latitudes and altitudes: cooler, slower ripening – deep color + ripe tannins
Vineyard area nearly doubled this century (foreign+domestic investment)
Los Helechos brand controlled by FeCoVita
Modern technology due to investment: drip irrigation common
GI Valle de Uco across three departments, each has own GI
Tupungato: base of Mt. Tupungato volcano: Malbec, Cabs, Pinot Noir/Char/SB
La Carrera is other high sub-region
Gualtallaray: long narrow strip 1,100-1,600 m, limestone soil (GI in process)
Lighter body, higher acidity Malbec, herbal (blend w/Cab Franc too)
Adrianna Vineyard White Bones, Catena
Tunuyán: Wider altitudes, fruity low or Pinot Noir and white at highest
Clos de los Siete from Vistaflores
Viña Cobos (Paul Hobbs) in Los Arboles – dry farming
San Carlos: Old vines, Malbec/Cab. Sauvignon, Syrah in lower sites, frost issues
GI Paraje Altamira: alluvial fan, calcareous w/stony topsoil (80% sand Catena)
1,100-1,200 – fuller bodied than Gualtallary, but good aging

545
Q

Southern Mendoza

A

San Rafael: 200+km south of city, lower: 450-850 m but south=cooler/long season
Hail is hazard, Diamante and Atuel Rivers, Sauvignonasse
Not as prestigious: med body, red fruit Malbec/Cab Sauv/Syrah/Bonarda
Chenin Blanc is signature, well-balanced and fruity
DOC less common on labels than GI

546
Q

San Juan

A

Less than 1/3 of Mendoza, 600-1,500 m – pink grapes in low areas (vines dropping)
Syrah double area of Malbec, high altitude Pedernal Valley 1,250-1,500 near Mendoza
Zonda, Tulum valleys, Petit Verdot/Tannat, ¼ of production (Moscatel)

547
Q

La Rioja Argentina

A

3rd largest – high-volume inex. Famatina Valley: Torrontés, Cab, Malbec, Syrah
La Riojana co-op = largest Fairtrade producer in world, ‘La Rioja Argentina’ for exports

548
Q

Salta

A

Calchaquí River valleys: irrigation water, altitude 1,500-3,000+ and latitude 24-26
Intense sun, high anthocynanins/tannins, zonda wind for thicker skin/concentrated
Malbec: herbal/floral, med(+) acidity, also Cab, Bonarda, Syrah, Tannat
GI Cafayate: 1,700 m, in south of province, unoaked
El Esteco Old Vines 1945 Torrontés

549
Q

Patagonia

A

Latitude 38-39, altitude 400 m = longer season, rain less than 200 mm irrigation
Pinot Noir, Cab Franc, Merlot, Sémillon, Chardonnay, Riesling (still Malbec above all)
Winds lower disease pressure, can cause damage: poplar trees protect
Río Negro: 100-year history, old vine Sémillon, Pinot, Malbec
Upper valley 180-270 m: also Merlot + Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc
Chacra bodega by Sassicaia producers (32 Pinot Noir, old vines Rio Negro)
Neuquén: Newer this century, small number by Neuquén River (expansion difficult)
Riper, more arid: Malbec, Merlot, Pinot + Sauvignon Blanc
Chubut: hares and frost in far south
Vineyards used to be apple/pear orchards

550
Q

Argentina Business

A

13 million hl (5th largest), 2.8 million hl exports: USA 22% by volume, 1/3 value
UK, Spain, Canada, Brazil (MERCOSUR free trade) – boom fallen since 2012
Inflation increasing costs, low yields 2016(El Niño)+2017(frost)
Foreign ownership restrictions placed, lifted 2016
80% of production consumed domestic (fallen 75% in last 50 years)
60% of export is monovarietal Malbec
Wines of Argentina: Malbec World Day showcases diverse range (danger of focus)
Purchase power decreasing: consumers buying less but better quality
60% of vineyards<5 ha, family owned – grape selling to producers
COVIAR Strategy 2020: promotion domestic+export
Catena Zapata or Familia Zuccardi have become largest
FeCoViTa and Grupo Peñaflor (Las Moras) – high volume
Investment comes from France, Spain, Italy, also Chile

Chapadmalal in Buenos Aires: Gewurztraminer, Riesling, Albariño

551
Q

Canada Overview/Vineyard

A

12,500 ha under vine, extreme continental
lakes=disease pressure, snow can provide insulation
Largest producer of Icewine in world (German immigrants 1970s)
Vinifera brought in 1950s, focus from 1980s
US-Canada trade deal in 1989 put pressure on quality
Canada had prohibition for 11 years from 1916 but wine exempt

Vineyard
Modern technology/techniques, microclimates (precision viticulture)
VSP for air flow, also Lyre and GDC in fertile soils 
Pests: moths, mealy bugs, leafhoppers, birds, deer, bears
Short season: May to late August, harvest weather unpredictable
Geotextiles in cold areas or hilling up
552
Q

Ontario

A

7,000 ha, shores of Lake Erie and Ontario, 41-44N – ripe fruit, high acidity
Soils: limestone from ancient seabed by lakes, clay, sand and gravel
90% of Canada’s Icewine, mostly Vidal
Equal parts red and white wine, 4% rosé
Riesling: Dry to sweet, citrus/peach/floral
Chardonnay: med(+)/high, apple/citrus/peach
Cabernet Franc: red plum, green pepper, herbal, usually oak, can be Icewine
Blends w/Merlot for med. tannins, dark fruit
Pinot Noir: red cherry, strawberry, med. body
Gamay Noir: light body, fresh red fruit
Producers – Bachelder, Norman Hardie
Inniskillin also makes sparkling icewine

Lake Erie North Shore
Shoreline as well as islands i.e. Pelee Island, water all around
Shallowest lake (quicker spring warming, faster autumn cooling)
Still subject to winter freeze, warmest of Ontario (ripe Bordeaux reds, less structure)

Prince Edward County
Eastern end of Lake Ontario, surrounded by water – west winter wind, freeze
Limestone plateau w/stony topsoil to radiate heat, burgundy grapes v. high acidity

553
Q

Niagara Peninsula

A

80% of Ontario vineyards, mostly slope up escarpment or by lake
Lake and slope give warm air in winter, cool air in summer
Cold SW winds in winter, north-facing escarpment protected (ridge warmer)
Regional appellations rule: 85% from there, rest from Niagara Peninsula
Sub-appellations 100%, i.e. Twenty Mile Bench

Niagara Escarpment
	Coolest on peninsula, benches + north slopes (not lake or ridge)
	Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Franc and Riesling
Niagara-on-the-Lake
	Warmer, less diurnal range, longer season (riper) but same grapes
		Also grows Bordeaux blends
554
Q

British Columbia

A

4,200 ha: Pacific area (cool maritime) and continental 400 km island, 48-51N limit
Long summer days, diurnal range, ripe but acidic wines
2/3 vines removed in vine pull scheme, 50/50 red and white
Merlot: fuller body/alc./tannins than Ontario
Pinot Noir is elegant and on the rise
Cabernet Sauvignon: Intense fruit, high tannins/acidity
Pinot Gris: Most-planted white, dry to off-dry, med. body, med-high acidity
Chardonnay: Medium body, riper than Ontario
Mission Hill: drone, geier machine, full restaurant
Oculus flagship Lunar New Year package, Bordeaux blend half Merlot, ¼ new oak
VQA rules: 95% from appellation, rest from BC

Similkameen Valley
Rocky valley along Similkameen River, winds funneled from tall mountains
400-500, higher diurnal range here: Merlot/Cab./Burgundy

Vancouver Islands, Gulf Islands, Fraser Valley
Cool maritime, mild winters: fungal disease, Pinot Noir – Cowichan Valley Vancouver

555
Q

Okanagan Valley

A

85% of production (range of climates, 250 km long)
Soils: glacial deposits, loams w/sand in south – irrigation required
Lakes incl. Okanagan Lake (northern half), not as much influence as Great Lakes
Dry climate, only 300 mm rain in south + 400 mm in north – organic viticulture
Cold winters, vine burying not needed
Altitudes of 300-600 m for diurnal range
Slopes: north and east for Burgundian, Riesling, Gewurztraminer
Southern slopes: Merlot/Cabernet Sauvignon/Syrah, full body+high alc/acidity
Golden Mile Bench sub-GI on west side has cooler temps

556
Q

Icewine

A

Harvest at -8 C, hand or machine (labor hard to find, cold nights)
Ontario: 35 Brix at press, 125 g/l finished product, min. 7% ABV
Fermentation stops naturally at 9-11 ABV, 200-250 g/l sugar, high VA+glycerol
Vidal largest volume, Riesling best quality (Cabernet Franc also)
Yield 10% of still wine (damage, dehydration, animals)
Icewine is 58% value, 13% volume of export
Trademark of Canadian Vintners Association, must be:
Naturally frozen, vinifera/Vidal, Canadian-grown, min. sugar
No artificial concentration or addition of sugar

557
Q

Canada wine law

A

Ontario VQA 1988, BC 1990
Vintners Quality Alliance wines must be:
Grapes from that province, only vinifera or permitted hybrids
Minimum must weights, chaptalization limits
Double testing w/sensory evaluation and lab analysis
Varietal: 85% (EU), two varieties must add up to 95%
2018, imported blends “International blend from domestic and imported grapes”
Canadian grapes that are not in VQA are Product of Canada

558
Q

Canada business

A

Domestic consumption dominates: growing demand for importation
1.5 million l export: China, USA, Korea, Japan
Icewine 850,000 l/year
Small vineyards, estate-owned, grow grapes and buy in (BC VQA “Estate bottled”)
Growers are entering production, winery numbers are rising
Monopoly makes sale difficult: Liquor Control Board of Ontario, Société des Alcools du Québec
Cross-province shipping is difficult, wine tourism is key
Ontario: no importation from other provinces
British Columbia: “In-person” importation, but no shipping

559
Q

Austria Overview

A

High acidity dry white, sweet white, local red grapes
Cistercian monks in 10th-12th century brought Burgundian wine culture, made terraces
In 15th and 16th century, area expanded to 150,000 ha (3x modern)
Decline: Turkish invasion, taxes, popularity of beer, phylloxera+mildew
First wine laws in 1900s (hybrids forbidden)
Exports from Burgenland in 70s and 80s
Wine scandal 1985: diethylene glycol antifreeze (increase volume, simulate sweetness)
Drop from 30 million l to 5 million l export – now 53 million l, value 3x
Austrian Wine Marketing Board established 1986 to change image

560
Q

Austria Climate

A

Cool continental – rainfall from 450 mm in Weinviertel to 850 Steiermark
Weinviertel has cool north winds
Steiermark has warm Adriatic, Burgenland warm Pannonian, Danube has cool Alps
Hazards: frost in many areas, hail in Steiermark, winter freeze not typical
Water stress for thin draining soils (irrigation required)

561
Q

Austria Soil

A

1) thin soil on rock (granite/gneiss, crystalline Urgestein), 2) richer loess
Riesling on thinner soils (less water then GV), Grüner on loess/clay
Limestone and schist in Leithaberg hills, volcanic in Steiermark/Kamptal

562
Q

Austria Vineyard

A

Lenz-Moser cordon 1.2-1.4 m (high/wide) 1980s (low maintenance, mech.)
Now cane, single-double Guyot + VSP (better for high quality)
Machine harvesting flatter Weinviertel/Burgenland, hand work in Wachau
Terraced vineyards take 3-5x the time to work
14% of vineyards are organic, 9% sustainable – low rainfall during season
Max. yield 67.5 hl/ha (avg. 49 hl/ha): focus on high quality wines

563
Q

Austria Grapes

A

2/3 white, Zweigelt is most-planted red
Grüner Veltliner: 1/3 of plantings (14,000 ha), clay and loess for water
Vigorous (canopy), thick skins (careful w/contact), rotundone, mid-ripening
Range from simple citrus (acc/good) to citrus/peach/age (vgoo/premium)
Zweigelt: 14%, Sankt Laurent x Blaufränkisch, yield, earlier ripening
Vigorous (leaf removal/canopy), potassium deficiency (withering), no rot/frost
Medium(+) acidity, medium tannins: red cherry, acceptable to very good
Welschriesling: Steiermark fresh dry, inexpensive (acc/good) – decline
BA+TBA near Neusiedlersee, vgood/outst+premium (also Sekt)
Blaufränkisch: high acidity, med(+) tannins, deep color+black fruit
Early budding, late ripening (Burgenland), thick skins (Neusiedlersee fog)
Yields must be controlled, otherwise struggles to ripen (green flavors)
From good mid-priced unoaked, to vgood/outst w/spicy oak, premium
Riesling: 4% of plantings, prestige: Niederösterreich, warmest thin soils
Dry, full bodied, medium alcohol, stone fruit/tropical – vgood/outst, premium

564
Q

Austria Winemaking

A

White wine: preserve fruit, short skin contact (aromas), neutral fermentation
Temperature control to avoid loss of aromas, no MLF (low pH+varietal character)
Fine lees 6 months + for quality producers, experimentation
Red wines: large open-top fermenters, punchdown or pump over
Stored in stainless steel, large old oak (soften tannins w/out oak flavor)
Acacia for white and red: oxygenation without spice

565
Q

Austria Wine Law

A

German and Romanic (Districtus Austriae Controllatus on the rise)
Wein – no geographical indication
Landwein – PGI wine – first two categories are 10% of wines
Qualitätswein – PDO wine, government inspection + inspection no, 15° KMW
Klassik: declared vintage, varietal character
Reserve: min. 13% ABV, harvested and released later
Prädikat levels based on must weight, Kabinett is under Qualitätswein
DAC (regionally typical Qualitätswein) created 2002, Weinviertel – now 15
Restricted varieties (typicity), tasting panel (excludes new wave)
Hierarchy of Gebietswein (regional), Ortswein (village) + Riedenwien (vineyard)

Qualitätswein min. 9% ABV, 4 g/l acidity
Prädikatswein min. 5% ABV, 17 KMW

566
Q

Österreichische Traditionsweingüter

A

1992, group of producers in Kam/Krem/Wach/Vie
Vineyards classified Burgundian, soil+climate – 81 Erste Lage selected 2019
1ÖTW on label (two most traditional varieties), 1e 60 hl/ha, Ge 50 hl/ha
Riesling/GV in Kamptal, WGS+WB in Wien, Blaufränkisch in Carnuntum

567
Q

Wachau

A

North bank Danube (reflect) steep S terraces for max. sun (night heat stone)
460 mm rain, irrigation (controlled), humidity can cause noble rot
Riesling on gneiss, Grüner Veltlines on loess – only monovarietal
Very good to outstanding quality, premium price, Domäne Wachau
Wachau DAC introduced 2020 – hand harvesting, single-vineyard R+GV, no oak
Vinea Wachau classification of vineyards (Ried Achleiten), dry 9 g/l styles:
Steinfeder: Fruity, 11.5% ABV – lightest style
Federspiel: concentrated, 11.5-12.5%
Smaragd: min. 12.5% ABV, ripe fruit and concentrated

568
Q

Kremstal

A

East of Wachau, town of Krems: warmer influence of Pannonian plain
Lenz Moser and co-op Weingut Stadt Krems
Dry Grüner + Riesling, med(+)/high acidity, med/full body (good/outst,mid-prem)
Red wines (Zweigelt) label Niederösterreich, south of Danube: good/v.good, mid

569
Q

Kamptal

A

Kamp River, Langenlois town: >50% GV, then Zweigelt+Riesling
Similar temp/sunshine to Kremstal, less humidity (little botrytis), north of Danube
Warm breezes from Pannonian plain (black), cool air Bohemian Massif
Diurnal range means high acidity, v. good/outstanding + premium
Mid-priced good Niederösterreich Zweigelt, some v. good oaked
Bründlmayer, Schloss Gobelsburg

570
Q

Wagram

A

North and South of Danube, gentle hills, strong Pannonian warmth, not DAC
Loess soils for Grüner, also Roter Veltliner (no relation) – white full-bodied nutty
Klassik and Reserve style, Eiswein/late harvest – good/v. good, mid/premium

571
Q

Weinviertel

A

Largest in Austria, ½ Grüner Veltliner, 400-600 mm of rain
Cool breezes for high diurnal range (peppery and high acidity)
DAC only from Grüner Veltliner, Reserve min. 13%, can some oak/botrytis (dry)
Good/v. good, inexp./premium – Sohm, Kracher

572
Q

Thermenregion

A

Near Vienna, warm Pannonian air, 50% black grapes, no DAC
High-quality reds from Pinot Noir/Sankt Laurent (med- body, med tannins, cherry)
Good/v. good quality, mid priced, often aged in oak for spice
Whites: Neuburger (spicy and floral), Rotgipfler (full-bodied peach)
Zierfandler (aromatic peach, honey, spice)

573
Q

Neusiedlersee

A

Eastern shore of lake Neusiedl, flat/warm/humid (water up to 30)
Lake warm in autumn, fog on closest vineyards (humidity) but warm sun
Noble rot every vintage: very good/outstanding TBA, Zweigelt away from lake
TBA: sweet, high acidity, marmalade, no oak: hand harvest, premium, aging
DAC is for red wines, sweet labeled as Burgenland, med acidity/med/full body
Reserve: min. 60% Zweigelt, blend w/Blau/PN/SL, oak typical
Good/very good, mid/premium: Krutzler dry, Alois Kracher TBA sweet

574
Q

Leithaberg

A

Ausbruch TBA around Rust, 20% Blaufränkisch (hills for diurnal range)
DAC for red or white: 85% Blaufränkisch, oak aging – med+-high acidity
(very good/outstanding, premium)
White DAC: Blends or varietal Weissburgunder, Char, GV, Neuburger
(good/very good, mid-premium, medium-high acidity, medium body)

575
Q

Mittelburgenland

A

Burgenland: Flat and warm, Hungarian border – Pannonion plain, 55% black
Blaufränkisch, Zweigelt, Grüner Veltliner (too warm), Welschriesling (botrytis)

South of Leithaberg, >50% Blaufränkisch
DAC: stainless steel/large oak, 85% Blaufränkisch, 12.5% ABV
DAC+Vineyard: higher min. alcohol, oak cask/barrique, 13% ABV (max. 13.5%)
DAC Reserve: higher alcohol, longer maturation, large oak/barrique (13% ABV)
DAC mid-priced, good/very good – Reserve full bodied, very good/outstanding

Familie Gesellmann

576
Q

Steiermark

A

Styria, SE Austria bordering Slovenia, steep hills + terraces, diurnal range
Cold winters (winter freeze), spring frost and hail (netting)
Crisp dry whites: Welschriesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Weissburgunder (high acidity)
Good to very good, mid priced – immediate drinking
Vulkanland Steiermark DAC, Südsteiermark DAC + Weststeiermark DAC
Regional wines many varieties, Ortswein+Riedenwein Sauvignon B. and WB

577
Q

Wien

A

DAC for Wiener Gemischter Satz, field blend of 20 varieties, dry/unoaked
Vineyard site can be named (then not dry), light body/med(+)/high acidity
Acceptable/good quality, inex/mid priced

578
Q

Austria Business

A

Fragmented (4,000 estates): decline in small estates, increase of >5ha
Hospitality >1/2 of all sales, Heurigen for domestic sales – simple inns/taverns
Domestic wine dominates retail: 2/3 of all wines purchased
Bulk production way down, bottling up
20% export (Germany <1/2), Switzerland and US – Germany >50% by value

579
Q

Chile Overview

A

Silvestre Ochagavía Echazarreta: 1851, vines + French winemaker from Bordeaux
Experimental nursery in 1830s (boon for phylloxera, Europeans look to Chile)

Early 20th century: lots of cheap wine
mid-20th century: Chile isolated, domestic demand declined - 1/2 of vines pulled by 1980s
País used to be most common grape, 75% has been pulled up

New areas: Casablanca, San Antonio, Limarí
Traditional regions rediscovered: Itata, Maule

Elquí Valley around 30S (vineyards also exist in Atacama, as well as Cautín to south)

Pinot Noir clone 9 and 16 for warmer vintages

Rootstock
Ramsey (V. Champini) for nemadotes

Wines of Chile
Sustainability certificate: water management, but also fair employment
2025 strategy: 6% increase of value
Cornerstores: Innovation (R+D Center), image, diversity, sustainability

580
Q

Chile Climate/Soil

A

Warm Mediterranean north to south, long and dry (cooler and wetter in south)
El Niño brings rain (2-10 years), La Niña brings drought: vintage variation
Cordillera roughly 300-800 m in altitude
Humboldt Current from Antarctica
Gaps in cordillera allow fog and breezes to enter, slopes provide aspect

Soil
Alluvial river valleys are fertile soil - clay, sand, silt, gravel
Slopes: less fertile, cordillera has gravel w/sand and silt, Andes is volcanic granite

581
Q

Chile Vineyard

A

137,000 ha (increased in 90s and 2000s, now declined)
Production between 9 and 13 million hl
Intense sun for high tannins/anthocyanins, minimal fungal disease
Sustainable/organic common
85% of vineyards are irrigated (except Itata, sometimes Bío Bío/Maule - old vines and rainfall)
Where does water come from? Melting snow from Andes, or aquifers in Casablanca
VSP training, no phylloxera but grafting now common to protect against nematodes
Although mechanization is easy, machine harvest is low

582
Q

Chile Grapes

A

Cabernet Sauvignon is most planted by far (40,000 ha)
Sauvignon Blanc has 15,000 ha
Confusion: Carmenere called Chilean Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc actually Sauvignonasse
Top 4 grapes = 60% of production, but diversity is increasing (Rhone varieties, Riesling, Gewurztraminer)

Cabernet Sauvignon
Finest wines: single variety or blend (Merlot/Carmenere/Syrah)
Full body, high ripe tannin, mint/eucalyptus, spice from some new oak
Best sites near Andes, control vigor and retain acidity
Also used for cheap wines in Central Valley, less structure

Merlot
Inexpensive Central valley exports, medium body and dark fruit
Fuller bodied styles with riper fruit also made

Carmenere
Identified in 1994 (confused w/Merlot), more common in single variety now
High tannin, medium acidity, black fruit, herbaceous and coffee or chocolate
Ripening two/three weeks later than Merlot, warm sites otherwise herbaceous dominates
Too much ripening = high alcohol
Clonal selection/site selection/harvest dates, less extraction and new oak

Syrah
First planted in mid-1990s, increasing rapidly
Peppery in San Antonio/Casablanca, black fruit in Colchagua Valley

Pinot Noir
Red fruit and herbal, in Casablanca and San Antonio

Sauvignon Blanc
Limarí, Casablanca and San Antonio: high acidity, citrus/tropical and wet stones/herbaceous (less/oak)

Chardonnay
Limarí, med+ to high acidity, citrus and stone fruit (tropical in Central Valley)

583
Q

Chile Law

A

1995: DO system created: Five regions Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Central Valley, Southern, later Austral
2011: Distinction between Costa, Andes, Entre Cordilleras (slow uptake)

DO requirements: 75% of grapes from region (or 85% for export to EU)
Varietal: 75% of that variety (or 85% for export to EU)
Minimum alcohol of 11.5% ABV
Other terms have little meaning: Reserva + Reserva Especial min 12%, Reserva Privada/Gran Reserva 12.5% and 6 months oak

584
Q

Chile Business

A

4th largest export, 70% of production is exported (9.3 million hl)
Low value per volume (only Spain and South Africa are lower)
Wines of Chile aims to promote premium wines
Domestic consumption is low, 2.3 million hl
Free-trade agreements with China and South Korea (China is largest export market)
USA, Japan and UK are also important, South America (Brazil) has MERCOSUR
80% of wine is by four companies: Concha y Toro, Santa Rita, Santa Carolina and San Pedro (wine boom of 1850s)
Large companies own vineyards and buy grapes
Torres Lafite Rothschild and Jackson Family Wines attracted: cheap land, low costs (importation offset)
MOVI: Movimiento de Viñateros Independientes

585
Q

Coquimbo

A

Tradition: Pisco and table grapes
Since 1990s, high-quality
3 DOs: Elquí, Limarí + Choapa

Low latitude (30S) means intense summer and sunlight: mountains and Pacific cooling
Humboldt Current brings fog but no rain (Atacama Desert, 100 mm rain)
Reduced snowfall in Andes is threatening irrigation
Difficulty of access means small production, premium wines

586
Q

Elquí

A

Follows Elqui River from coastal plains to hills and Andes foothills
No coastal mountains, fog reaches further in
Syrah and Sauvignon Blanc where fog affects
Highest vineyards up to 2,200 m, intense Syrah, Rhone varieties, Malbec

Viñedos de Alcohuaz: around 2,000 m of altitude, granite soil
Syrah blends w/foot treading in lagars, concrete eggs, Tococo 100% syrah in foudres

587
Q

Aconcagua Valley

A

Wider use of Andes/Entre Cordilleras labeling
250 mm of rain in center, irrigation needed
Full-bodied Cab. Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Carmenere
Producers moving away from valley floor at either end
Aconcagua Costa gives fog and ocean breezes for Sauvignon Blanc/Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and cool Syrah
Aconcagua Andes: up to 1,000 m, air descends mountains

Errázuriz: Aconcagua Costa ‘Las Pizarras’ (slate soil), also make Costa Syrah in Northern-Rhone style

588
Q

Casablanca Valley

A

Only extends 30 km inland: hills to north and east trap cooling air from ocean
Spring frost is still an issue (this is one of Chile’s coolest regions)
White wine: Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay
Also Pinot Noir with herbal notes, Syrah with peppery in warm spots

Nematodes make grafting necessary
First coastal region boom in Chile

589
Q

San Antonio

A

Undulating hills with ocean influence, varying levels of exposure
Sauvignon Blanc with high acidity, medium body, citrus/herbaceous/wet stones
Pinot Noir, Syrah, Chardonnay

Recognized in 2002
Infertile thin red clay on granite
Lo Abarca, Casa Marín region recognized 2018

590
Q

Leyda Valley

A

Only planted in 1990s, close to coast with foggy mornings and bright afternoons
Same four as San Antonio

591
Q

Cachapoal Valley

A

Northern part, warmer (isolated from coast): warm valley for Cab. Sauvignon, Carmenere, Syrah
Peumo has concentrated Carmenere in Cachapoal River valley (funnels wind from coast, less frost)
Best Cabernet Sauvignon/Syrah in cool east Andean foothills

Peumo: Torres Cordillera de los Andes Carmenere

592
Q

Colchagua Valley

A

Larger than Cachapoal, stretches from Pacific to the Andes
Center of valley has hilly areas for some quality
Apalta is a south-facing amphitheater, captures cool wind, S slopes, poor soils
Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Carmenere
Western coast: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay + Pinot Noir
Just east of coastal ranges, moderate Syrah and Carmenere

Baron Rothschild Le Dix de los Vascos Cabernet Sauvignon
Marchigüe area near coast, cooler
- Polkura (yellow granite) Maniac Syrah on south slopes, NNE-SSW row orientation to prevent sunburn
- Polkura is a Certified B Corporation
Apalta horseshoe valley, sandy and clay loam with granite on slopes
- Montes Folly Syrah

593
Q

Central Valley Chile

A

Majority of production, south of Santiago
Fertile irrigated plains
Producers on valley sides, coast reach premium prices
Only high volume wines labelled as Central Valley

594
Q

Maipo Valley

A

Surrounds Santiago, home to many wineries launched in 19th century (continuous plantings)
Cabernet Sauvignon on valley floor, cassis and mint
Carmenere, Syrah produced in quality, whereas Merlot is for inexpensive
Mountains all around, new plantings up to 1,000 m:
- Alto Maipo w/Puente Alto and Pirque, elegant Cab. Sauvignon and Bordeaux blends

Concha y Toro Don Melchor, 100% Cab. Sauvignon from Puente Alto (2/3 new oak for 12-15 months)
Errázuriz Viñedo Chadwick - used to be 100% new oak, now 80% (some Petit Verdot)

595
Q

Curicó Valley

A

Inexpensive high volume reds, rivers for irrigation water
Not much shelter from coast
Range of grapes: Cab. Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot and Chardonnay

Torres Manso de Velasco Cabernet
Lapostolle Cauquenes Vigno Carignan

596
Q

Maule Valley

A

More vineyards than anywhere in Chile (lots of high volume)
Climate like Curicó, but slightly cooler and more rainfall (more south)
Dry farming for quality, wines are lighter in body and higher in acidity
Old vine País and Muscat of Alexandria, 100 and 200 years old
Good País now with medium acidity, spice, strawberry, low to medium(-) rough tannins (gentle)
Carignan introduced in 1940s, revival w/VIGNO (promotes old vine dry farmed Carignan, Cauquenes)
Rasberry, cherry, black plum, medium/high acidity/tannins

597
Q

Southern Region Chile

A

Coastal hills diminish going south, climate cooler and wetter
Bio Bio has >1,000 mm of rain, cool summers - fungal disease (ocean breezes and canopy management)
Longer days due to higher latitude

Malleco Valley
Few producers, Burgundy and Sauvignon Blanc - high acidity

Cono Sur Reserva Especial Riesling

Osorno and Mechuque island for experimental plantings

598
Q

Itata Valley

A

Used to be cheap grapes for blending, now revival (tinajas)
Old bush vine (75%) Muscat of Alexandría and Pais
Old vine Cinsault, licorice and red black fruit
Newcomers plant international grapes (Chardonnay/Pinot Noir, Merlot/Cabernet Sauvignon)
Escape route for climate change

Ancient Moscatel from conquistador
Pedro Parra Imaginador Cinsault on white granite

599
Q

Bío Bío valley

A

Dry farmed old bush traditional varieties

International varieties, Burgundian but Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Gewurztraminer

600
Q

France Overview

A

Wine planted in Greek colony of Marseille, then Roman, then brought from Italy
Expansion from south under Charlemagne (800) and monasteries after 1,000 CE
Draining of Medoc by Dutch engineers in 17th century

Area under vine drops 1/3 from 1970 to 2010s due to vine-pull schemes

Vineyard management:
High-density trellis vines are the norm
Cane replacement Guyot with VSP

Certified organic is now 10% (quadrupled in last decade)

GRAPES

110,000 ha of Merlot (more than all of Germany’s vineyard plantings)
80,000 Ugni Blanc + Grenache (Ugni Blanc grown for Cognac/Armagnac)
60,000 Syrah
Carignan is still in top ten varieties planted

INAO (Institut National de l’Origine et de la Qualité) 1935

AOC Rules include: yield limits, geographical boundaries, rootstock, training systems, grape varieties, planting densities, earliest date of sale, maturation length)

Since 2009, grape variety can be included on the label

Business
40% of wine made by co-ops
Holdings at 10.5 ha are much higher than Italy/Spain/Portugal/Greece
Consumption in decline (1/2 of 100 years ago)
3/4 of sales are through small/mid-sized companies or private label (fragmented)

601
Q

New Zealand Overview

A

Climate: Cool maritime
1819: First vines planted by Samuel Marsden, 1840 James Busby makes first wine
Industry inhibited until 1960s
Sale of Liquor Act 1989: supermarkets can sell wine
Fortified wines dominated first half of 20th century
Croatians founded wineries in West Auckland, Hawke’s Bay
Dairy industry hygiene standards helped during transition
38,000 ha, 2.7 million hL of exports (more than 60% Sauvignon Blanc)

602
Q

New Zealand Environment

A

Latitude 36-46 (climate variations): cool in South, warm in North
Southern Alps on South Island protect against wind from Tasman Sea
Marlborough rain: 650 mm
UV radiation 40% than Northern hemisphere: ozone hole and low pollution
Canopy management: otherwise vegetative growth shades fruit
- VSP with two canes is typical
- Scott-Henry with four canes in some high-volume production
- High yields = problems ripening in cool vintage
- Fruit trained high (ground reflection of sun not wanted)
- Easier for hand harvesting
- Low densities (2,000-2,5000 vines/ha) but high yields (70 hl/ha)
- Machine harvesting common
- Hazards: humidity (North Island), birds (eat + also damage), cyclones
- Alluvial soils and winds mean irrigation still practiced, windbreaks placed
- Sunburn is issue, leaf positioning protects

Sustainability widespread, only 5% organic (Central Otago 175)

603
Q

New Zealand Law

A

Geographical Indications Act of 2017: protects regional names overseas (18 names)
Reciprocal for international wines like Prosecco
‘Appellation Marlborough Wine’2018: entirely grown in Marlborough w/maximum yield, sustainable, bottled in NZ: only SB

604
Q

New Zealand Business

A

Expansion in early 2000s then debt in 2008: consolidation of 40% in next decade
19 companies have sales above 2 million litres, 73 mid-sized (200,00 to 2 million), 624 small (less than 200,000 litres)
3 million hL produced, domestic consumption 1/6th of that
Supermarket, hospitality, specialist wine retail
85% use cellar door, though digital retail now more important
NZ produces 1% of world’s wine, but is 7th exporter by value and 10th by volume
UK, US and Australia
Bulk shipping for 1/3 of exports
98% of producers in SWNZ
86% of production is Sauvignon Blanc (too much reliance?)
-exploration aiming to introduce different styles
Wine labels focus on environment (quality and eco-friendly)
New Zealand Wine: coordinates marketing campaigns (America’s Cup)
Promote wine to sommeliers

605
Q

New Zealand Grapes

A

Sauvignon Blanc has 62% of plantings, Pinot Noir close to 15%
Experimentation is key given low regulation
SB: Low temp fermentation, stainless steel, cultured yeast (increase aromatics)
MLF avoided to preserve acidity, oak + lees avoided
Chaptalization sometimes practiced at start of fermentation
Ascorbic acid + SO2 ensure freshness

606
Q

NZ Sauvignon Blanc Vineyard

A
  • Light, water, canopy management = ripe fruit
  • Diurnal range = intense fruit flavor w/high acidity
  • Row orientation, canopy management = tropical on sunny side, grassy in shade
  • Early picking for herbaceous
  • Mechanical harvesting = some skin contact (higher methoxyprazines)
607
Q

NZ Sauvignon Blanc Winery

A
  • Protective treatment against oxygen (refrigerate fruit)
  • Yeast strain (e.g. Anchor Vin 7 which promotes passionfruit, gooseberry)
  • Low temp, stainless steel = primary fruit
  • Avoid malolactic, minimal lees (2-3 months), ascorbic acid, SO2, screwcap

More producers using barrel ferment, lees stir, MLF, oak, ambient yeasts, more solids
Skin contact up to 2 months for texture, aroma

608
Q

New Zealand Winemaking Trends

A

Red wines: mid-range temps, cultured yeasts, neutral vessels for high volume
Whole bunch experiments w/Pinot Noir and Syrah, cold maceration w/Pinot

Barriques for Cab/Merlot, larger oak for Pinot Noir
Range of sweetness in white wines, noble rot for Semillon + Riesling
90% screwcaps

609
Q

Greater Auckland

A

moderate maritime, high humidity

  • Waiheke Island: Cabernet Sauvignon/Syrah
    • Medium/full body, black fruit - undulating landscape for shelter
  • West Auckland: High cost of land, fruit sourced from elsewhere
    • Producer: Kumeu River
  • Matakana: Range of varieties, local tourist trade
610
Q

Gisborne

A
  • 1,000 mm of rain (often during harvest), canopy management needed
  • Used to be largest production, dropped in last 10 years for kiwi/apple farming
  • Chardonnay > 50%, flat loam/clay/silt floodplain
    • All ranges, from simply fruity to barrel fermented and creamy
  • Harvest earlier than other regions (sunlight, warm north wind)
  • Pinot Gris - 2nd grape, dry to medium-dry, often lees stirring and oak for premium
  • Merlot highest black grape
  • Producers: Lindauer, Milton Vineyards
611
Q

Hawke’s Bay

A
  • Oldest, 2nd largest region - cities of Napier and Hastings
  • 1,000 mm of rain, 2,180 sunshine hours, gravel soils = Bordeaux climate
  • Gimblett Gravels: alluvial, stony topsoil releases heat at night
    • Syrah, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon
    • irrigation needed, frost issue due to inland
  • Bridge Pa: deeper sandy/clay loam, more water retention
  • Merlot: Range of style, premium blended with Cabernets, 12-18 months French oak
  • Malbec increasing popularity
  • Syrah: 75% of NZ plantings in HB, just 350 ha - spicy and floral, French oak
  • Chardonnay: grapefruit and stone fruit, struck match
    • medium acidity, barrel fermentation (coastal wines have higher acidity)
612
Q

Wairarapa

A
  • Premium wines, 3% of vineyard but 1% of wine volume (Ata Rangi, Dry River)
  • Wine tourism (close to Wellington)
  • Martinborough known for intense Pinot Noir and less herbaceous Sauvignon Blanc
  • Cool maritime, large diurnal range
  • Winds from Cook Strait cause low yields
  • More tannic Pinot (small with thick skins)
  • Wind machines prevent frost
  • Sauvignon Blanc lower yielding, costs more
  • Soil: gravel terraces, silt loam and loess (cooling influence, slow to warm)
  • Pinot Noir: More than half of plantings, medium/medium(+) tannins
    • Abel clone from Romanée Conti, late flowering, productive
    • Dijon clones 667 and 777
  • Sauvignon Blanc: Less herbaceous than Marlborough, some wild yeast or lees
613
Q

Marlborough Overview

A
  • More than 2/3 of all plantings, first planted in 1873 and launched a century later
  • Montana Wines bought 1,000 ha in 1973
  • 650 mm rainfall - alluvial soils drain, irrigation from underground aquifers
  • Machine harvesting due to flat land promotes passionfruit/bell pepper aroma
    • 5-10x higher in machine harvesting due to skin contact
614
Q

Marlborough Sub-Regions

A
  • Wairau
    • Western end has warmer days and cooler nights, more frost risk
    • Former riverbed: silt, loam and clay, fertile soils near coast (irrigation needed)
    • Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris
  • Southern Valleys
    • N-S valleys, clay soils for cooling + water retention (harvest 2 weeks later)
    • Pinot Noir for long season of ripening without high alcohol
  • Awaterre
    • South of Wairau over Wither Hills: cooler, windier coastal high elevation
    • More herbaceous SB, high acidity
    • PN thicker skins, more deeply colored
615
Q

Marlborough Grapes

A

Sauvignon Blanc
- >70% of plantings, aromatic
- Blending of different sites/regions for aromas, volumes
Pinot Noir
- 10% of plantings, growing popularity with Southern Valleys
- Three styles:
- easy drinking Wairau from alluvial plains light body, mid-priced
- Southern Valleys clay and loess slopes, medium to full body, intense
- Windier Awatere, thicker skins, floral and herbal, matured in oak
Chardonnay
- Unoaked medium body or complex stone fruit/oak/struck match
Pinot Gris
- Light bodied or full bodied honeysuckle and stone fruit

616
Q

Nelson

A
  • West of Marlborough, 970 mm of rain in sudden storms (similar sunshine hours)
  • Cool maritime climate, cooling sea breezes
  • Moutere Hills: clay-based gravel, sandy loam (50-150 m), dry farming
    • Fuller bodied, more concentrated (highest quality)
  • Waimea Plains: Low riverbed, alluvial silt and clay
    • Free-draining soils require irrigation, lighter body
  • Sauvignon Blanc: More restrained, sometimes barrel ferment/maturation
  • Pinot Noir: Waimea unoaked, Moutere Hills full bodied and premium
617
Q

Canterbury

A
  • 90% in North Canterbury (other region is Canterbury Plains near Christchurch)
  • Cool climate, hot days and cool nights (frost in spring), 650 mm
  • Warming dry NW winds can damage vine - windbreaks, evapotranspiration
  • Waipara Valley: Warmer due to Teviotdale Hills protecting against cold E winds
    • Valley floor is sandy loam, light bodied
    • N/NW slopes are clay loam w/limestone, fuller bodied
  • Waikari: More inland, clay/limestone soil
  • Just 3% of production but critical acclaim, especially for Pinot Noir
  • Pinot Noir: High acidity, range of bodies and red/black fruit
  • Riesling: esp. Waipara, ripe fruit and high acidity, dry to sweet/late harvest
  • Sauvignon Blanc: Range of styles, producers experimenting with wine techniques
  • Pinot Gris also common
618
Q

Central Otago Overview

A
  • Shielded by Southern Alps, 46 latitude and 360 mm of rain
  • Organic and biodynamic possible, irrigation necessary
  • Altitude usually above 300 m
  • Spring frosts: some producers use helicopters
  • Canopy management for UV and hot summer days
  • Gravel, clay soils are low in organic matter: compost and cover crops add structure

Pinot Noir: 70% of Central Otago, 1/4 of NZ plantings, premium price
- Deep color, full body, with ripe tannins, plum/black cherry, some whole bunch experiments

Pinot Gris and Riesling: dry to medium-sweet (or sweet Riesling), no noble rot

619
Q

Central Otago Sub-Zones

A
  • Alexandra: furthest south and hottest, cool nights (harvest same), med(+) acidity
  • Gibbston: highest/coolest (320-420), later ripening + high acidity - site selection
  • Bannockburn: Kawarau River and Cromwell Valley
    • Warmest and driest, ripe and concentrated wines
  • Cromwell/Lowburn/Pisa: from Cromwell to Lake Dunstan, moraines + terraces
  • Bendigo: warmest sub-region, north slopes/terraces
    • Poor stony soil, semi-arid, continental: low yields, concentrated
  • Wanaka: shores of Lake Wanaka to Luggate, 290 to 320 m (cooler)
620
Q

Waitaki

A

Northern Otago, launched in 2001, small plantings

- Limestone soils: Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer

621
Q

New Zealand North Island Extras

A

Auckland

  • Founded in 1900s by Croatian, English + Lebanese winemakers
  • Highest rainfall and humidity
  • Formed by volcanic activity
  • Kumeu clay soils, Chardonnay + Merlot blends
  • Waiheke Island in Hauraki Gulf: Syrah, warmer+drier than mainland
  • Matakana: Pinot Gris, Syrah, Cab blends

Gisborne

  • Ormond ‘Golden Slope’: original plantings, limestone for premium Chardonnay
  • Clay, loam and limestone soils, rainfall makes for dry farming
  • Viognier, Gewurztraminer, Chenin Blanc
  • Biodynamic thriving
  • Manutuke: first plantings in 1890s, sandy coastal soils (clay in hills to west)
  • Patutahi: limestone+Gisborne clay, Chardonnay

Hawke’s Bay

  • 5,000 ha (roughly 1,000 each of Chardonnay+Merlot)
  • Gimblett Gravels: Omahu gravels (sand/loamy sand topsoil)
  • Bridge Pa Triangle: oldest soils, Te Awa clay loam (red metal underneath)
    • Red blends and Chardonnay
  • Dartmoor Valley: limestone (NW)
  • More than 500 ha Pinot Gris
  • Esk Valley near coast: Chardonnay+red blends
  • Havelock Hills: Syrah+Viognier
  • Central Hawke’s Bay has more limestone

Wairarapa

  • 1,000 ha: 1/2 pinot noir, 1/3 sauvignon blanc, ~50 ha Pinot Gris + Chardonnay
  • Masterton: shadow of Tararua ranges, PN+SB
  • Gladstone: free-draining river terraces
  • Martinborough: free-draining gravel up to 15 m deep, some limestone
    • Syrah small plantings but promising
622
Q

New Zealand South Island Extras

A

Nelson
- First vines planted by German settlers in mid-1800s
- 1,100 ha -10% Chardonnay, 10% Pinot Gris
- Gravel-threaded clay and stony alluvial riverbeds
- Moutere Hills: Pinot Noir and Chardonnay
- Waimea Plains: lighter style
Marlborough
- 20,000 ha of vineyards, more than 1,000 ha of Pinot Gris+Chardonnay, 2,000ha Pinot Noir
- 2,500 sunshine hours
- Diurnal range of 11 degrees
- Richmond Ranges protect from rain
- Wairau: Alluvial soils, coastal deep salty + silt loams
- Southern Valleys: Waihopai, Omaka, north orientation, older clay soils (water retaining)
- Awatere: Driest, coolest and windiest, free-draining gravels on terraces, clay+sandstone on plains
North Canterbury
- Calcareous loam, clay and limestone
- Glasnevin has free-draining soils
- Pinot Noir on limestone escarpments, Chardonnay downslope
- Waikari: inland, natural north-facing escarpments, 200-300m
- Limestone, lime-rich clays - premium Pinot/Chardonnay

Waitaki

  • Planted 2001, around 60 ha (half Pinot Noir)
  • Greywacke/schist/limestone
Central Otago
- Pinot Noir is 1,500 of 1,900 total ha
- Schist with quartz, mica, river gravel
- Free-draining, low-nutrient soils
	Gibbston
	- Kawarau Gorge, coolest sub-region
	Alexandra
	- Largest diurnal range, vibrant wines
	Bannockburn
	- South bank of Kawarau river (north-facing) 
	- Warmer, harvest up to 1 month before
	- Heavy clay loams, free-draining sandy loams, schist gravels
	- Riesling and Chardonnay also grown
	Cromwell
	- Valley floor parallel to Pisa Mountain range
	Bendigo
	- North slopes, stony soils radiate heat at night
	- Aromatic white wines
	Wanaka
	- Lake protects against frost, delicate wines
623
Q

French Exports

A

world leader in value export (50% more than Italy, 3x more than Spain)

Bordeaux: 50/50 export and domestic (4 billion euro sales), 48% domesticated in supermarkets (5.80)
	- Exports 44% volume, 52% value: Hong Kong, China, USA, UK
Burgundy: 50% domestic, 25% EU, 25% outside EU: USA, UK, Japan
- Chablis: 2/3 exported, UK is biggest
Beaujolais: 60% France (direct sales, specialist shops), 40% export: Japan, USA and UK (60% of exports together)
Alsace: 75% of sales are domestic, export EU (BeNeDeutschland), North America
Loire: Anjou-Saumur and Touraine export 20% of production
- Pays Nantais 15% export, production dropped from 13,000 ha after 1991

Rhone: France sales are supermarket (32%), specialist wine (29%), discounters (6%)
- 33% export: USA, UK and Belgium
- More producers are making+bottling their own wine as value increases
Languedoc: Pays d'Oc IGP 50% export (BeneDeutsch), domestic supermarket/hospitality
Picpoul de Pinet: 65% exported (UK), tourism
Roussillon: 20% export (China, Belgium, Germany)
Provence: 35% export (US 1/2), huge growth this century
Jura: 20% export, recent increase
624
Q

Italy Export

A

40% exports (split between still/sparkling, 65% of value comes from still): 26% to USA, 18% to Germany, then UK
Piemonte
85% of Barolo, 75% of Barbaresco are exported
Veneto
80% of Soave exported: Germany, UK
65% of Amarone exported: Germany, US, Switzerland
Friuli-Venezia-Giulia
export value up 55% in past 5 years
Lazio
60% exports
Umbria
Sagrantino di Montefalco 60% exported
Basilicata export/domestic 50/50 (USA, China, Japan)
Abruzzo: inexpensive wines to north Europe, north america
Cantina Tollo exports 35%
Campania: Export growth doubling Italian avg.

625
Q

Portugal Export

A

Dão 15-20% exports: Canada, Brazil, USA and China
Alentejo: 20% of Portugal’s exports (Brazil, Angola, USA)
Douro 1/3: Canada, Brazil and UK
Vinho Verde: 35% of production is exported: Germany, USA, Brazil + France (USA leads by value)

626
Q

Spain Export

A

Spain: largest volume export (~21 million hL), value less than half of Italy
- 56% of exports are bulk
- Export markets: France (24%), Germany (17%), then UK, USA and China (higher value)
Galicia: 1/4 exports (risen from 10% - USA, then UK)
Ribera del Duero: 20% exported: Switzerland, Mexico, USA, Germany+China
Rueda: 80,000 hl of 616,000 hl exported: Netherlands, Germany, USA, Switzerland
Rioja: 37% of volume exported: Germany, UK and US (domestic market stable, export growing)
Penedes: 30% exported: Germany, Canada, Switzerland, China, US (Catalunya is 90% of domestic market)
Montsant: 45% exports: Germany, US, France, Switzerland, UK
Jumilla: majority exported, Yecla 95% exported

627
Q

Germany Export

A

10% of production (1 million hl) exported, this has halved but price is now 300 per hl
Markets: US, Netherlands, UK, Norway and Sweden (US and Norway high value)

Less than 1/4 of VDP wine exported

628
Q

Argentina Export

A

80% of production is domestic (consumption fallen by 75% in 50 years)

13 million hL production (5th largest in world), 2.8 million hL exported
USA is main export country (22% by volume, 31% by value)
Other markets are UK, Spain, Canada and Brazil
MERCOSUR free trade agreement

629
Q

Australia Export

A

5th largest exporter (growth since 1980s), exports 7-8.6 million hL (2/3 of production)
UK, China, USA, Canada and Germany
China is fastest growing, leads in value (China-Australia Free Trade Agreement, shipment to mainland)

630
Q

Austria Export

A

Domestic wine dominates retail: 2/3 of all wines purchased
Bulk production way down, bottling up
20% export (Germany <1/2), Switzerland and US – Germany >50% by value

631
Q

Canada Export

A

Domestic dominated: increasing demand, importation high
1.5 million litres exported: China, USA, Korea, Japan
Icewine 58% by value, 13% by volume of exports

632
Q

Chile Export

A

4th largest export, 70% of production is exported (9.3 million hl)
Low value per volume (only Spain and South Africa are lower)
Wines of Chile aims to promote premium wines
Domestic consumption is low, 2.3 million hl
Free-trade agreements with China and South Korea (China is largest export market)

633
Q

Greece Export

A

Export: 13%
Export countries: Germany (~40%), Scandinavia, Benelux (cheap and falling)
Quality exports: USA and Canada in 2010s, Australia and UK now
Wine of Greece promotes wines + educates about grapes

634
Q

Greece Business

A

Growers: 7,000
Average holding: <0.5 ha
Largest producers: Greek Wine Cellars, Boutaris Group
Export: 13%
Export countries: Germany (~40%), Scandinavia, Benelux (cheap and falling)
Quality exports: USA and Canada in 2010s, Australia and UK now
Wine of Greece promotes wines + educates about grapes
Greek drinkers prefer international varieties

More than 1,000 wineries, mostly local or sold in bulk to co-ops/companies

Co-ops established in 1920s, important until 1980s (poor quality)
Samos co-op: high quality sweet

635
Q

Macedonia Overview

A
  • North mountains are continental, cooler
  • 650-700 mm of rain
  • Plains are warm, Mediterranean (rain shadow)
    • Volume production, quality in Drama + Kavala
  • Mostly red wine
  • Drama: Bordeaux blends (warmer and drier)
  • Chardonnay + Sauv. Blanc at altitude, full-bodied indigenous from D+K
636
Q

Peloponnese Overview

A
  • Peninsula, 30% of plantings (lots of raisin planting)
  • White grapes dominate (Moschofilero, Roditis) except for Nemea
  • Largest number of PDOs in Greece
  • Mountainous, poor rocky soils - altitude moderates
  • PGI Slopes of Aigialia: good wines at altitude
  • Patra plains, fertile soils
  • East wind: ocean rain, less towards interior
637
Q

Islands

A
  • Hazards: low rainfall, rocky soil, wind, land sold for tourist development
  • Cyclades - Santorini, Cyclades, Tinos
  • Samos and Lemnos in northern Aegean (sweet Muscats), Crete for high-quality
638
Q

Retsina

A

made with pine resin (originally sealant, then additive)

- late 19th century, then boom in 1960s w/tourism
- Hot central plains, Salvatiano + Roditis
- Resin added to must, lees for a week (more subtle now: in past, added to wine+longer contact)
- Legally protected, minimum acidity and permitted alcohol rules
- OKP + premium Assyrtiko examples are helping reputation
639
Q

Greek Red Grapes

A

AGIORGITIKO

  • 3rd most planted grape, versatile styles
  • Reds: deep color, med. acidity, med.-high tannins, med. alcohol
  • Ripe red fruit (jammy), sweet spice: new oak often used
  • PDO Nemea

XINOMAVRO

  • Highest reputation
  • PDO Naoussa
  • Grippy tannins + high acidity in youth, more vegetal
  • Pale color, quick to go garnet
  • Long bottle aging for leather, flowers, earthiness
  • More accessible modern style: fruity, less extraction, blend w/Merlot
640
Q

Greek White Grapes

A

More than 70 percent of production

SAVATIANO

  • Drought-resistant workhorse
  • Large volume cheap, common in Retsina
  • Some quality low-yield bush vines
  • Pear, stone fruit, citrus, nuts with age

RODITIS

  • 2nd most planted, pink skinned, high yields
  • Some quality, altitude and old vine (Peloponnese)
  • Medium body, high acidity, melon

ASSYRTIKO

  • Santorini and mainland (adaptable)
  • High acidity even when hot, high alcohol
  • Citrus, stone and tropical fruit - smoke and flint
  • Vinsanto (sweet w/acidity)
  • Some oak blending common

MOSCHOFILERO

  • Pink-skinned, aromatic (citrus, rose petal, spice)
  • High acidity, light body, low alcohol
  • Some rosé
  • Main plantings in Mantinia (Peloponnese)

MALAGOUSIA

  • Almost extinct 20 years ago, making comeback around Greece
  • Medium acidity and body, stone fruit/flower
  • Herbaceous in cooler areas
  • Various fermentation option

Vidiano - apricot + bergamot on Crete
Aidani - jasmine + kumquat on Cyclades

641
Q

Greece Law

A

PDO=POP
(Prostatevmeni Onomasia Proelefsis)
33 zones, 20% of production
Native varieties only (except Muscat for sweet)

PGI=PGE
(Prostatevmeni Geografiki Endiksi)
>120, 62% of production
Less strict, international varieties allowed

Wines from Greece
High-volume blends, 18%

OKP category includes only Retsina and Verdea (from Zakynthos)

642
Q

Beaujolais Environment

A 
Large volume (roughly same as rest of Burgundy together), 98% Gamay, some rosé and Chardonnay
Terra Vitis association founded here

Climate
740 mm of rain (slightly more than Burgundy)
Saone River moderates temperatures
Cold Mistral wind affects flowering, damages grapes (Gamay has thin skin)
Hills in north (200-500 m): fast-draining granite, schist, sand (Aspect: S+SE), earlier harvest

Gamay Noir
Early budding (frost), millerandage, rot and wind
Early ripening (harvest before autumn rain)
Unripe examples have green, leafy character
Productive grape, yield control or bud reduction to limit fertility
Bush vines tradition (wind protection), still done on steep slopes - mechanisation common now
Manual harvesting typical for winemaking (necessary for semi-carbonic maceration)

643
Q

Beaujolais Winemaking

A

Chardonnay
Marl and limestone (cooler soils), north area bordering Maconnais

Winemaking
Semi-carbonic maceration typical, chaptalization, 4-5 maceration on skins (6-9 days for Beaujolais Villages)
Goal: fruit flavor, color (press wine/free run blend) - aromas are kirsch, banana, blueberry
Cru Beaujolais either semi-carbonic (10-20 days) or crushing and maceration w/new oak
Natural wine popular: negociant Jules Chauvet, winemaker Marcel Lapierre

644
Q

South Africa Export

A

Volume exports increase more than 20x, now more than 400 million liters

Volume exports have exploded, more than 135 countries
UK is 25% of exports, then Germany
US, China and African countries are crucial for value
Goal is to increase packaged wine, but bulk is winning

645
Q

Tokaj Export

A

Large volumes of semi-sweet inexpensive

40% exports, Eastern Europe, China, France, UK and US

646
Q

USA Export

A

Majority consumed domestically (8th in export volume)
50 largest companies = 90% of US wine

Oregon: Roughly 1/4 of production DTC: tasting rooms, wine clubs
60% consumed in other parts of USA
2.5% exported (Canada, UK, Japan)

California: 26 million hL sales, 3.3 million hL export
5,900 growers, 4,800 bonded wineries

647
Q

California Background

A

History: Grapes planted by Spanish missionaries for altar wine + sweet fortified, plantings increased during 1849 Gold Rush. By 1890s, high production lowered prices and endangered industry
Prohibition from 1920 to 1933 decimated winemaking.
1930s to 1960s: Industry rebuilds, medium-sweet to sweet wines with European names
Descriptions evolved: red table wine, then grape name + origin
later 20th century: Cab + Chardonnay, technical improvements (Tchelistcheff) - hygiene and temp.
1976 blind tasting
AXR1 (replanting was opportunity for site + material selection)
1990s concentrated style, now more variety and experiments/research

648
Q

USA Business

A

Largest consumer, 4th largest producer
430,000 ha in more than 30 states, more than 10,000 wineries
California 80%, Washington 5%, New York 4%, Oregon 1.4%
Highest value import country
Highest consumption, low per capita rate
Majority consumed domestically (8th in export volume)
50 largest companies = 90% of US wine

649
Q

California Viticulture

A
  • Replanting in 1990s (phylloxera, Pierce’s disease in south + increased knowledge)
    • Now more variety of density, training and materials (rootstock and needs)
    • Precision viticulture more common, machines where topography allows
    • Irrigation common (drought is issue)
    • Wildfires, spring frost are issues
    • California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance: ‘Certified Sustainable’
      • 85% of California wine is certified by various programs
650
Q

California Climate

A
  • Mediterranean and dry
  • Influences: cold Pacific + mountain ranges
  • California current + upwelling = colder waters than east coast
  • Air movement cools + reduces disease risk (can even close stomata to slow ripening)
  • Intense sun with low latitude
  • Altitude can cool but often above fog, so intense sun (color and tannin)
  • Central Valley = Sacramento + San Joaquin Valley for high volume
651
Q

California Labelling

A

140 AVAs, large (North Coast) or small (Cole Ranch in Mendocino)
‘California’ label = 100% grapes from state
Named county, e.g. Sonoma = 75%
Vineyard name = min. 95%
Estate-bottled = vineyard and winery in same AVA (has resulted in large AVAs)

652
Q

Oregon Law

A

100 percent of Oregon wine must be from Oregon grapes, 95% from appellation
Multi-state wines follow either law, but 100% of wine from those two states
Variety: 90% without stating other 10% (California only requires 75%)
Exemption for 18 varieties that are historically blended (Petit Verdot, Merlot, Cab. Franc)
Estate-bottled: 100% winery AVA and fully finished at estate

653
Q

Oregon Overview

A

Soil: marine sedimentary, volcanic and loess
High rainfall in winter: Willamette valley gets 1,000 mm
Pinot Noir is 57% of plantings
Organic and biodynamic are big: 47% of vineyards are organic, 52% of all biodynamic vineyards are in Oregon

Wadenswil and Pommard clones for Pinot noir, Dijon introduced 1980s
(Wente and clone 108 from California too warm-climate)

654
Q

Winemaking Sequence Inexpensive White

A

Harvest - machine (quicker+cheaper, at night)
Transport - night/early morning, add SO2 (prevent spoilage/oxygen)
Reception - limited sorting (MOG), no skin contact (save expense/time/equipment)
Pressing - pneumatic press, inert/large load (low coast/oxygen)
Adjustment - Acidification, chaptalization (balance, quality, adds some cost)
Clarification - Flotation, centrifugation, enzymes, betonite (faster than sedimentation, less complex, solids need monitoring - fruitier and less off odors)
Hyperoxidation - No, would reduce aromas
Yeast - Cultured for reliable, aroma-specific, less Brett
Temp - cool (12-16), stainless steel - initial investment pays off
MLF - No - preserve acid, aroma
Maturation - no lees (time and monitoring) - poorer quality, store in neutral steel/concrete
Finishing - CMC, fining, sterile filter - no tartrate crystals, clear wine, no faults
Packaging - Glass/PE/bag/can, screwcap (less oxidation, cheaper)

Cards For D3 (3 decks)

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