D - done Flashcards
Theories of development are often categorized as? (8)
Learning Cognitive Psychoanalytic Humanistic Ethological Physical Language Moral
What developmental theories are included in the broad category of learning theory? (3)
Behavioral
Social learning
Information processing
What developmental theories are included in the broad category of psychoanalytic theory? (2)
Neo-Freudian
Ego psychology
What developmental theories are included in the broad category of humanistic theory? (2)
Humanistic
Self theories
Human growth and development changes can be viewed as classified into different dichotomies, which are?
Qualitative or quantitative
Continuous or discontinuous
Mechanistic or organismic
Developmental changes that are qualitative?
That are quantitative?
- Qualitative: change in kind or structure or organization, eg sexual development
- Quantitative: change in number degree or frequency, eg intellectual development
Developmental changes that are continuous?
That are discontinuous?
- Continuous development emphasizes the small shifts or gradual, sequential, changes that occur over time and that are difficult to separate. Eg, Skinner’s operant conditioning portrayed developmental changes as a series of stimulus response contingencies, strengthening a pattern of behavior over time. Eg, personality development.
- Discontinuous: changes that can be separated into stages, abilities jump to qualitatively different and more advanced levels. Eg, stage theories, such as Piaget’s and Erikson’s, and language development.
Developmental changes that are active vs reactive?
Active and reactive theories stress the roles that people play in determining their own development. Active theories, such as Erikson’s, portray people as active in regulating or governing their behavior. In reactive theories, such as Skinner’s operant conditioning, people are passive and react to environmental stimuli.
Developmental changes that are mechanistic (environmental)?
That are organismic?
- Mechanistic (or environmental): development is compared to the workings of a machine. Change is stimulated by the environment, which shape the behavior of the child (Passive beings). Includes Skinner’s Behavioral model
- Organismic: the organism is involved, active, uses cognition, eg moral or ethical development. Piaget, Maslow, Rogers, Gestalt.
Nature vs nurture in human development-
Nature?
Nurture?
How seen in most developmental theories?
Nature - includes genetic and hereditary factors
Nurture - includes learning and environmental factors
Most developmental theories (e.g., Freud, Erikson, Piaget) are interactionist or epigenetic: they acknowledge the relationship of nature and nurture.
Development of self-concept -
Definition of self-concept?
Influenced by? (2)
Development of self-concept by age group? (5)
- Your perception of your qualities, attributes, and traits.
- Influenced by culture and family.
- Birth: no sense of self; quickly changes in early months
- By 24 months: signs of self-recognition, identify categories such as age and gender, who is “like me”
- Preschool: self-concept is concrete and physical
- By 8 yo: can describe inner qualities
- By adolescence: self-concepts become more abstract and psychological
Genotype?
Phenotype?
- Genetic make up of the individual
- The way the genotype is expressed through physical and behavioral characteristics
Tabula rasa?
John Locke’s idea that children begin as blank slates, acquiring characteristics through experience.
Plasticity, in development?
For most individuals, lifespan development is plastic, with an easy and smooth transition from one stage to the next.
Resiliency -
Definition?
Example?
- The ability to adapt despite adverse experiences.
- Eg, some children, despite damaging circumstances, seem to suffer few consequences.
Neuroscience in mental health -
Sometimes referred to as?
Place in counseling?
- Sometimes referred to as the missing link.
- The mind is the product of molecular, cellular, and anatomical activity in the brain, which is in turn impacted by experience in relationships, culture, society. Counseling promotes release of various neurotransmitters that promote brain changes.
In general, neurotransmitters affect people how?
They carry messages between neurons
that stimulate chemical reactions in the brain
leading to various cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions
to experiences.
Four principal neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine
Serotonin
Dopamine
GABA
Acetylcholine - important for?
Important for memory, cognitive functioning, emotional balance and control
Serotonin - vital for?
Emotional and cognitive processes, sleep and anxiety control
Dopamine - important for?
Emotional wellness, motivation, pleasurable feelings
GABA - helps?
Reduce anxiety, promote relaxation and sleep
Robert Havighurst ( 1972 ) proposed a developmental task approach -
Covering which times of life?
Achieving tasks meant?
General difference between early and later tasks?
- a series of developmental tasks from infancy through late adulthood.
- as humans achieve these tasks, their sense of self and mastery improves.
- earlier tasks have biological determinants, later tasks have social and cultural determinants.
Maslow’s theory -
Type of theory?
Hierarchy of needs - first to last?
A humanistic theory. Food Safety Belonging Self-esteem/status Self-actualization
Robert Havighurst - developmental theory -
Stages?
Tasks arise from?
Tasks consist of?
- 6 Stages, each requiring completion of the last for success and happiness: infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, late maturity
- Developmental tasks arise from physical maturation, culture, and the individual’s values
- Development tasks are skills, knowledge, behaviors, attitudes that an individual has to acquire through maturation, learning, effort
Behaviorism view of human development?
- A learning approach
- Environment manipulates biological and psychological needs resulting in development
- Learning and behavior change results from reward and punishment
- We grow develop and learn through experience, the rewards and punishments we receive.
Classical conditioning vs operant conditioning?
Classical: pairing an unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response with a conditioned stimulus.
Operant: reward/punishment follows a behavior.
Law of effect -
Formulated by?
States what?
Thorndike
When a stimulus-response is followed by a reward/reinforcement, the connection is strengthened. Consequences affect the probability of it being repeated.
Classical conditioning - simple example?
Food - salivation; bell - salivation
Pavlov and classical conditioning?
Pavlov demonstrated that pairing an unconditioned stimulus (US), smeat powder, that automatically elicited the unconditioned response (UR), salivation, with a neutral, conditioned stimulus (CS), such as something that ordinarily would not elicit salivation (e.g., a tone, buzzer, or bell), would, after a number of pairings, result in the CS eliciting the UR, now called the conditioned response (CR).
3 possible timings of US and CS?
How effective is each?
- Simultaneous conditioning occurs when the US and the CS are presented at the same instant.
- Delayed conditioning occurs when the CS begins first but overlaps presentation of the US; most effective.
- Backward conditioning means that the US is presented before the CS; rarely effective.
Operant conditioning - simple example?
Pick up toys - get a hug or a cookie
4 Reinforcement schedules?
Fixed ratio (FR) - reinforce after a fixed number of responses Variable ratio (VR) - reinforce on average, every nth response Fixed interval (FI) - reinforce after a fixed period of time Variable interval (VI) - reinforce on average, every nth period of time
Classical conditioning - What is extinction?
Repeated display of the CS without presentation of the UR/CR will lead to a weakening of the learning.
Conditioning - Spontaneous recovery is?
After a rest period, the conditioned response reappears when the conditioned stimulus is presented again.
Conditioning - stimulus generalization?
Once a response has been conditioned, stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus are also likely to elicit the conditioned response.
Classical conditioning - stimulus discrimination?
Eg, a green light is the CS that leads to the CR, and an experimenter then uses a red light. If the participant is reinforced for responding to the red light, generalization will occur; but if the response is not rewarded with the presentation of the CR, and the participant stops responding to the red light, stimulus discrimination is occurring.
Conditioning - Shaping?
Behavior can be shaped through successive approximations.
What is the Psychoanalytic approach to personality development?
Freud:
- Personality develops through interaction of personal needs (drives) and the environment, and past experiences play an essential part.
- Personality development involves transforming basic instincts into socially acceptable, rational behavior.
Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages and ages?
Oral, 1-1.5 Anal, 2-3 Phallic, 3-5 (Oedipal, Electra complexes) Latency, 6-12 Genital, 12-?
Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages?
Oral Anal Phallic (Oedipal, Electra complexes) Latency Genital
Development occurs in what 3 broad areas?
Physical
Cognitive
Psychosocial
Freud’s tripartite structure of personality?
Each operates on which principle?
Failure of the ego to resolve issues between id and superego?
- -The id: basic instincts (libido, sex, aggression, pleasure); operates on the pleasure principle; strives to reduce tension by seeking immediate gratification of needs, usually through unrealistic or irrational means.
- -The ego: operates on the reality principle; makes a socially acceptable, reality-based resolution to the urges of the id and demands of the superego.
- -The superego: operates on the morality principle; displays the moral values and standards internalized through social interactions.
- -Failure of the ego to resolve issues may lead to use of defense mechanisms to lower anxiety.
Libido?
Instinctual life force
Freud - Fixation?
Incomplete or inhibited development at one of the psychosexual stages
Freud - Pleasure principle?
Seek pleasure, avoid pain
Freud - reality principle?
The ability of the mind to assess the reality of the external world, and to act upon it accordingly, as opposed to acting on the pleasure principle.
Freud - erogenous zones?
Areas of bodily excitation such as mouth, anus, genitals.
Defense mechanisms - list (12)
Denial, Repression, Regression, Projection, Reaction formation, Intellectualization, Rationalization, Compensation, Displacement, Introjection, Sublimation, Suppression (is conscious)
Defense mechanisms - Projection
Attributing one’s own unacknowledged unacceptable or unwanted thoughts and emotions to another.
Defense mechanisms - Displacement?
Substituting the true object of one’s frustrations w a less threatening or more acceptable object
Defense mechanisms - Reaction formation?
Emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or unacceptable are mastered by holding an exaggeration of the directly opposite emotion/impulse.
Defense mechanisms - Rationalization?
Providing a different reason than the true one to reduce anxiety
Defense mechanism - definition?
Unconscious protective processes that help us control primitive emotions and anxiety.
Defense mechanisms - repression?
Keeping out of consciousness the idea that creates anxiety
Defense mechanisms - Compensation?
Substituting a successful experience for one that produced failure.
Erikson’s theory -
Name?
Stages?
Theory of psychosocial development Trust vs mistrust Autonomy vs shame and doubt Initiative vs guilt Industry vs inferiority Identity vs role confusion Intimacy vs isolation Generativity vs stagnation Integrity vs despair
Erikson’s stages with resulting ego virtue?
Trust vs mistrust--hope Autonomy vs shame and doubt--will Initiative vs guilt--purpose Industry vs inferiority--competence Identity vs role confusion--fidelity, able to commit Intimacy vs isolation--love Generativity vs stagnation--care Integrity vs despair--wisdom
Defense mechanisms - Introjection?
Unconsciously taking on values, behavior, or attitudes of others, esp parents.
Defense mechanisms - Intellectualization?
Reduces anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way, avoiding emotions.
Erikson’s stages with ages?
0-1.5--Trust vs mistrust 1.5-3--Autonomy vs shame and doubt 3-6--Initiative vs guilt 6-11--Industry vs inferiority Adolescence--Identity vs role confusion Early adulthood--Intimacy vs isolation Middle adulthood--Generativity vs stagnation Late adulthood--Integrity vs despair
Piaget - 2 processes within adaptation?
Assimilation - modifying events so they fit in our existing mental structure
Accommodation - modifying our mental structure to accommodate events
Piaget -
Studied?
We inherit 2 tendencies, which are?
- Cognitive development/intelligence
- Organization (we organize mental processes, knowledge) and adaptation (we adjust to the environment)
Piaget - Schema?
A mental structure that processes info, perceptions, experiences
Piaget’s 4 stages with ages?
- Sensorimotor, 0-2
- Preoperational, 2-7
- Concrete operational, 7-11
- Formal, 11-15 if at all
Piaget’s 4 stages with definitions?
- Sensorimotor: learn cause-and-effect , trial-and-error problem solving , and object permanence (i.e., objects do not vanish when out of sight), which mark a transition to symbolic thought
- Preoperational: develop symbolic representations that allow them to use language, egocentric (hard to take another’s POV), centration , or centering , (only capable of focusing on one facet of a situation at the same time), animism ( the attribution of life or human characteristics to inanimate objects), irreversibility (lack of understanding that actions or circumstances can be undone or changed).
- Concrete operational: begin logical operations, can sequence objects, understand conservation
- Formal: abstract and relativistic thinking, deductive reasoning, test hypotheses, logical problem solving
Kohlburg’s theory -
Name?
Stages?
Theory of moral development Preconventional Obedience and punishment Instrumental hedonism Conventional Good boy, good girl (seeking approval) Law and order Postconventional Moral/social contract and system of laws (most values and rules are relative) Universal ethical principles (self-chosen, universal ethical principles)
Gilligan’s theory of moral development -
Stages? (3)
Orientation to Individual Survival
Goodness is Self-sacrifice
Morality of Nonviolence
Daniel Levinson wrote?
His stages?
Seasons of a man's life 3 transitions between 4 eras of life: - early adult transition, 17-22 - mid-life transition, 40-45 (midlife crisis) - late adult transition, 60-65
Levinson - 3 sets of developmental tasks?
- Build, modify, enhance life structure
- Form and modify components such as life dream, occupation, love-marriage, family relationships, mentor, mutual relationships
- Become more individuated
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s developmental approach?
His 5 systems?
Ecological approach, looks at least levels and systems impacting a person.
Micro - family, school, peers, health system, church
Meso - communication between above
Exo - indirect influence of larger systems - industry, mass media, local politics, social services
Macro - cultural values, customs, laws
Chrono - timing of physiological events, family events, historical
Social learning developmental models -
These models look at?
Going beyond behaviorism, they?
One theory is?
- Look at social environment and cognitive factors
- Go beyond simple stimulus response of behaviorism, noting we can think about the connections between our behaviors and the consequences
- Bandura’s social learning theory
Bandura’s social learning theory -
Types of theory?
Central concept?
A social learning model and a cognitive behavioral approach.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy -
Definition?
Facilitated through what 4 mechanisms?
- The belief we can perform some task or behavior.
- Modeling, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion that we can do the task, and physiological states such as emotional arousal during the behavior
William Perry studied intellectual an ethical development in?
3 general categories?
3 positions within each category?
College students.
-Dualism
Authorities know; right and wrong authorities; good authorities may not know everything yet
-Relativism discovered
May be no right/wrong and uncertainty may be ok; all knowledge may be relative; in an uncertain world, I’ll have to make decisions
-Commitment in relativism
Initial commitment; balancing several commitments; commitments evolve and may be contradictory
Theories of women's development - What problems have made women second class citizens?
Gender stereotyping, male-imposed standards, devaluation of women’s qualities
Theories of women’s development - spoke out against masculine bias in psychoanalytic theory?
Nancy Chodrow
Theories of women’s development - significance of care taking?
Who wrote a book about it?
- Women spend a large part of their lives helping others develop.
- Jean Baker Miller wrote Toward a New Psychology of Women.
Theories of women’s development - self-in-relation theory, now called relational-cultural theory?
Developed by?
7 components?
Developed at Stone Center, Judith Jordan, 1991
- People grow toward relationships throughout life
- Mature functioning - mutuality and deepening connections
- Psychological growth - involvement in complex and diversified relational networks
- Mutual empathy and empowerment - core of positive relationships
- Growth fostering relationships require engagement to be authentic
- Growth fostering relationships stimulate growth and change
- Goals of development - increasing ability to name and resist disconnections, sources of oppression, obstacles to mutual relationships
Women’s development - Harriet Learner?
Dance of Intimacy
Choose a healthier balance of other and self
Show strength, independence, assertiveness
Women’s development - Carol Travis?
Wrote Mismeasure of a Woman
Women are misjudged by their fit into a male world
Society pathologizes women
Women’s development - Carol Gilligan?
Wrote In a Different Voice
Women view relationships differently than men, communication patterns are different.
Women’s development - Gail Sheehy?
Wrote Passages
Opportunities for growth through crises we face
Human development - spirituality -
Percent of US pop w spiritual beliefs?
How does it intersect w mental health?
Counsellors should be able to?
90%
Spirituality may directly influence view of self, relationships, world view, and problems.
Address spirituality issues important to CTs situation; have or acquire appropriate knowledge for a wide variety of beliefs, have awareness of their own spiritual beliefs
Human development - intelligence -
3 Theorists?
Nature vs nurture?
Testing intelligence?
Piaget - intelligence is adaptive thinking or action
Spearman - generalized (g) and specialized (s) abilities
Thurstone - identified several primary mental abilities
Intelligence is not fixed or determined solely by genetics, but is influenced by environment, experiences, culture
Intelligence tests may be biased
Human development - Daniel Goleman -
Wrote?
His theory states?
Wrote Emotional Intelligence
- Emotional intelligence can operate out of human emotions, independently of reasoning and thinking.
- It is a learned developmental process.
Human development - an emotionally intelligent person is?
Self-motivated, empathic, grasps social signals and nonverbals, develops strong interpersonal abilities.
Human development - midlife crisis?
Both men and women may experience a painful self evaluation process but not at a crisis level.
Human development - propinquity?
In selecting a partner, one will most likely set involved w someone who lives or works nearby.
Anabolism vs catabolism?
Anabolism - Building up towards peak potential
Catabolism - slow decline from peak to death
