Current Approaches in Psychopathology

Question 1

How many chromosomes do people have?

Answer 1

23 pairs x 2 = 46 chromosomes

Question 2

What is gene expression?

Answer 2

The process by which genes are turned off and on

Question 3

What is polygenic?

Answer 3

The influence of several genes interacting at different times across development as the individual interacts with their environment

Question 4

What is heritability?

Answer 4

The extent to which there is variability in a behavior/disorder within a population that can be attributed to genetic influences

Question 5

Two characteristics of heritability

Answer 5

1. estimates range on a scale from 0.0 to 1.0; the higher the number, the greater the heritability
2. heritability applies to a large population, not to individuals

Question 6

What are shared environments?

Answer 6

factors that include those things that members of a family have in common, such as family income level, child-rearing practices, and parent’s marital status and quality.

shared environmental factors are important for the development of child psychopathology

Question 7

What are nonshared environments?

Answer 7

factors that are those things believed to be distinct among members of a family, such as relationships with friends or specific events unique to a person (e.g., being in a car accident or on the swim team), and these are believed to be important in understanding why two siblings from the same family can be so different.

The nonshared, or unique, environmental experiences can also play a role, although these can be difficult to measure and change a great deal, at least during childhood and adolescence

Question 8

What is a genotype?

Answer 8

The total genetic makeup of an individual, consisting of inherited genes (the physical sequence of DNA)

Question 9

What is behavior genetics?

Answer 9

The study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior

Question 10

What is a phenotype?

Answer 10

The totality of observable behavioral characteristics, such as level of anxiety

Question 11

What is done in molecular genetics?

Answer 11

It seeks to identify genes and their functions

Question 12

What are alleles?

Answer 12

Different forms of the same gene.

Question 13

What is polymorphism?

Answer 13

A difference in DNA sequence on a gene that has occurred in a population

Question 14

What are the 4 DNA chemical bases?

Answer 14

Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)

Question 15

What are single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs?

Answer 15

Difference between people in a single nucleotide (A, T, G, or C) in the DNA sequence of a particular gene

Question 16

What are copy number variations (CNVs)?

Answer 16

The variation in gene structure involving copy number changes in a defined chromosomal region; could be in the form of a deletion where a copy is deleted or an addition (duplication) where an extra copy is added.

Question 17

What is the gene-environment interaction?

Answer 17

A given person’s sensitivity to an environmental event is influenced by genes.

Question 18

What are Genome-wide association studies (GWAS)?

Answer 18

They are a key method for examining SNPs and CNVs. Using powerful computers, researchers look at all the thousands of genes to isolate differences in the sequence of genes between people who have a psychological disorder and people who do not.

Question 19

What are epigenetics?

Answer 19

The study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function, meaning outside or above the gene.

Question 20

What are neurons?

Answer 20

A single nerve cell.

Question 21

What are the 4 parts of a neuron?

Answer 21

1. the cell body
2. dendrites
3. axon
4. terminal button

Question 22

What are synapses?

Answer 22

Small spaces between the receiving ends of neurons

Question 23

How do neurons send signals to relay information to one another?

Answer 23

With neurotransmitters that are stored in the terminal buttons.

Question 24

What are neurotransmitters?

Answer 24

Chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron.

Question 25

How do neurotransmitters work?

Answer 25

As the neurotransmitter flows into the synapse, some of the molecules reach the receiving, or postsynaptic, neuron. The cell membrane of the postsynaptic neuron contains receptors. Receptors are configured so that only specific neurotransmitters can fit into them. When a neurotransmitter fits into a receptor site, a message can be sent to the postsynaptic cell.

Question 26

Key neurotransmitters in psychopathology

Answer 26

dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question 27

Function of norepinephrine

Answer 27

A neurotransmitter that communicates with the sympathetic nervous system, where it is involved in producing states of high arousal and may be involved in the anxiety disorders and other stress-related conditions

Question 28

Function of GABA

Answer 28

Inhibits nerve impulses throughout most areas of the brain and may be involved in the anxiety disorders.

Question 29

Neurotransmitters and Psychopathology

Answer 29

1. Neurotransmitters are synthesized in the neuron through a series of metabolic steps, beginning with an amino acid. Each reaction along the way to producing an actual neurotransmitter is catalyzed by an enzyme.
2. A failure to pump leftover neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic cell (reuptake) would leave excess neurotransmitter in the synapse. Some research has focused on the possibility that the neurotransmitter receptors are at fault in some disorders.

Question 30

What is gray matter?

Answer 30

The neural tissue—made up largely of nerve cell bodies—that constitutes the cortex covering the cerebral hemisphere, the nuclei in lower brain areas, columns of the spinal cord, and the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system.

Question 31

What is white matter?

Answer 31

Neural tissue, particularly of the brain and spinal cord, consisting of tracts or bundles of myelinated (sheathed) nerve fibers.

Question 32

4 lobes of the brain

Answer 32

1. frontal lobe (executive functioning- thinking, planning, organizing)
2. temporal lobe (sensory perceptions- taste, temperature, texture)
3. parietal lobe (memory- process sense of smell, sound, taste)
4. occipital lobe (image processing and recognizing and links to memories)

Question 33

4 Subcortical structures of the brain.

Answer 33

1. anterior cingulate
2. hippocampus (memory)
3. amygdala (attention to emotionally salient stimuli)
4. hypothalamus (regulating homeostasis)

Question 34

Pruning in the brain

Answer 34

In neural development, the selective loss of synaptic connections, especially in the fine-tuning of brain regions devoted to sensory processing.

Question 35

3 types of brain connectivity

Answer 35

1. Structural (or anatomical) connectivity
2. Functional connectivity
3. Effective connectivity

Question 36

What is Structural (or anatomical) connectivity?

Answer 36

Refers to how different structures of the brain are connected via white matter.

Question 37

What is Functional connectivity?

Answer 37

Refers to the connectivity between brain regions based on correlations between their blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signals measured with a brain imaging method called fMRI

Question 38

What is Effective connectivity?

Answer 38

A combination of both types of connectivity. It reveals not only correlations between BOLD activations in different brain regions but also the direction and timing of those activations

Question 39

Which parts make up the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?

Answer 39

Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Adrenal cortex

The neuroendocrine connections among hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex, central to the body’s response to stress.