Culture, identity and socialisation

Question 1

What is meant by the term ‘femininity’? [2]

Answer 1

The expected behaviour associated with
females, for example, being passive and gentle.

Question 2

Describe two examples of manipulation into gender identity. [4]

Answer 2

 parents encourage and praise some activities and discourage others e.g.
boys praised for taking physical risks like climbing trees whilst girls
would be discouraged from doing this;
 parents and ‘influencers’ encourage girls to take more care with their
appearance but discourage boys from doing this;
 girls being encouraged to wear clothes in more ‘feminine’ muted or
softer colours whereas boys wear stronger colours;
 in the media role models encourage boys to be physically strong and
protective whereas girls are encouraged to be gentle and caring;
 religious role models encourage both boys and girls to behave in
traditionally gendered ways;
 Disney and other cartoon characterisations of princes and princesses
manipulate children into traditional gender roles;
 parents and teachers encourage gendered subject choices in school via
career guidance;
 girls being encouraged to help their mothers and behave in ‘a lady like
manner;
 girls ‘pushed’ by parents into taking dance lessons and boys ‘pushed’ by
parents into playing rugby or football;
 peer pressure encouraging children to conform to traditional gender
expectation e.g. through clothing choices;

Question 3

Explain how individuals are encouraged to conform to the norms and values of society. [6]

Answer 3

 through positive sanctions such as rewards e.g. within school teachers
send emails home, stickers, certificates etc.;
 through informal negative sanctions or punishments e.g. in the use of
the ‘naughty step’ or removal of possessions;
 through formal sanctions e.g. the threat of a criminal record or prison
sentence will be enough to make most people conform;
 peer pressure ensures that individuals confirm to group expectations;
 through the primary socialisation process – most people conform to
norms and values if they have been taught them well by parents;
 Marxists would argue that the hidden curriculum ensures that students
become conformist pupils and then conformist workers;
 role models can encourage conformity e.g. religious leaders teach by
example;
 through the fear of the consequences e.g. in the media everyone can see
what happens to norm and law breakers;
 workers are encouraged to conform with a mixture of positive sanctions
(praise and bonuses) and negative sanctions (warnings, being dismissed);

Question 4

Explain why feral children find it difficult to fit in to society. [8]

Answer 4

 feral children have been inadequately socialised and therefore lack the
basic norms and values needed to live in society;
 feral children may have been isolated from a young age and thus have
missed the vital primary socialisation in which children learn all the basic
skills such as talking – they are thus unable to live normal lives with
others in society e.g. Genie Wylie;
 feral children may have been socialised by animals and have thus
developed different norms which can be hard to break e.g. walking on all
fours and barking – like Oxana Malaya;
 feral children find it hard to adapt to cooked food and prefer raw meat
which some cultures would find distasteful;
 some feral children may receive primary socialisation but miss
secondary e.g. Rochom P’ngnieng who preferred to crawl and had lost
her ability to speak thus making her incapable of social interaction;

Question 5

To what extent does a global culture exist? [15]

Answer 5

Possible arguments for:
 Facebook – as a social media platform it allows people to feel
connected all around the globe;
 fashion – market leading brands such as Nike and Adidas are worn and
advertised in all parts of the world; globalisation has meant the spread
of westernisation, with its norms and values, which is a form of cultural
imperialism;
 globalisation encouraging a single global culture via better
transportation and communication across the globe via digital platforms;
 English is the global language of the internet and this may lead to some
languages becoming weaker or even dying out;
 increased migration of people from the developing to the developed
world means that people assimilate to often western global norms and
values and lifestyle;
 western lifestyles, food and drink have become popular through
marketing and greater availability e.g. fast-food chains such as
McDonalds and Pizza Hut;
 there are now global sports events such as the soccer world cup,
Olympic games etc. which bring together competitors from all over the
world under a common ethos and set of values;
 there are now global political and economic institutions which aim to
foster common human values and prosperity e.g. the World Bank, The
United Nations etc.;
 the films and music industries continue to be dominated by western
English language products emerging from Hollywood and major
western music labels which glorify their culture and values;

Possible arguments against:
 the mixing of people and cultures from all over the world enables the
sharing of ideas and lifestyles, creating vibrant cultural diversity rather
than a single global culture;
 each culture tends to have its own traditional foods which may not be
shared across the world;
 traditional dress still maintained in certain cultures e.g. in Asia and the
Middle East where female modesty is a core value this is reflected in
norms of dress e.g. hijab or burqa which is not a global norm;
 the internet is democratic and musical artists from different cultures can
now post videos and songs in their own language for their own culture’s
appreciation;
 some remote cultures with little communication and access to
technology are far removed from this global culture and in such an
environment tradition and religion may be the driving forces of culture;

Question 6

What is meant by the term ‘custom’? [2]

Answer 6

norms in a particular society that are widely
accepted and continue over time

Question 7

Describe two examples of informal social control. [4]

Answer 7

• peer pressure such as ridicule and ostracism mean that people conform
  due to fear of being excluded;
• the family (education, religion) is an example because the family controls
  members behaviours through sanctions to achieve conformity;
• sanctions or punishments that deter someone from further deviations from
  expected behaviour e.g. censure from other believers;
• rewards that encourage the repetition of expected behaviours e.g. treat
  trips in school for excellent attendance or effort;
• being praised by someone in authority such as a parent, boss or teacher
  brings pride and encourages repetition of the behaviour;
• receiving ‘likes’ and followers on social media platforms encourages
  further posts;
• the hidden curriculum in schools controls students through teacher
  expectations re punctuality, sanctions etc

Question 8

Explain how males are socialised into masculinity. [6]

Answer 8

• canalisation – parents use toys to socialise boys into masculinity e.g. toy
  soldiers encourage boys to think of themselves as tough, protectors etc.;
• manipulation – parents encourage gender appropriate behaviours and
  discourage inappropriate ones e.g. being encouraged to play contact
  sports to display their physicality and competitiveness;
• role models and representations in the media promote idealised forms of
  masculinity e.g. Vin Diesel or Daniel Craig promote a tough guy, macho
  image that young boys may aspire to;
• in school, teacher expectations and labelling may reinforce stereotyped
  gender ideas e.g. asking boys to carry heavy boxes or expecting boys to
  push the behavioural boundaries more than girls;
• male peer groups may peer pressure boys into hegemonic masculine
  norms e.g. adopting laddish behaviours and ridiculing femininity;
• religions present a view of males as leaders e.g. priests and imams –
  even God is represented as a ‘male’ figure reinforcing the naturalness of
  male authority;

Question 9

Explain why age affects an individual’s social identity. [8]

Answer 9

• adolescence can be a difficult time because it involves status anxiety –
  young people can find it stressful to make the transition from ascribed to
  achieved status and often look to their peer group for support e.g. in subcultures;
• childhood is seen as a distinct phase in life and generally a carefree time
  of innocence, learning and play during which children are protected by
  special laws e.g. about care, education and working;
• different ages bring different rights and responsibilities in society e.g. the
  right to marry or to vote are set at an age when young people are seen as
  being capable of making their own decisions;
• different ages are often linked to different interests and lifestyle e.g. the
  young are more interested in adrenaline-fueled activities, being in fashion
  etc. whilst older people may live a relaxed, quieter life and be less
  interested in following the latest trends;
• members of the same age group are a generation and this can lead to
  significant differences in experiences and attitudes, leading to conflict
  between the generations (generation gap);
• elderly people enter retirement which can be experienced as a period of
  impoverishment and negative labelling for some;
• in some societies elders are highly respected for their wisdom and will be
  treated with special honour and respect;
• in Western societies children spend a long time relative to other societies
  undergoing socialisation into adult roles and this period of socialisation
  shapes the child’s later identity;

Question 10

To what extent does the media help individuals to learn social expectations? [15]

Answer 10

• we live in a media-saturated society – children and adults interact with
  multiple media every day and with increasing frequency e.g. via films, TV
  and social media and the influence extends throughout life so in terms of
  the extent of our exposure the media is the most effective;
• the media influences how we see ourselves and others via the
  manipulation of representations of different groups e.g. women are
  represented in stereotypical ways according to feminist sociologists and
  these images can affect social interactions in a way that other secondary
  agencies cannot;
• postmodernists would argue that the media is highly effective in
  influencing culture, creating a consumer culture where we are encouraged
  to buy products based on celebrity endorsements or association with a
  particular lifestyle;
• social media is a new form of social control with ‘likes’ and ‘de-friending’
  and there is evidence that this affects young people, having the ability to
  frame self-identity and social interactions in a way that other agencies
  such as the workplace or education cannot;
• the media encourages social conformity by broadcasting the effects and
  consequences of deviance e.g. in news stories about those who break the
  law and what sentences they receive, and this is more powerful than, for
  example, peers;
• celebrity role models in both traditional and new media exert a big
  influence over the young in terms of their lifestyle, appearance and
  behaviour;
• the media often promote stereotypes and the demonisation of some social
  groups (Trowler);
• labelling theory – Cohen argues that the media can provoke a moral panic
  through the creation of folk devils, thus influencing the way the audience
  view certain social groups;

Arguments against:
* the family is more important in teaching social expectations – this occurs
through primary socialisation and the use of sanctions by parents;
* research shows that individuals do not simply passively accept the
negative messages given in the media but can exercise discrimination and
choice as to what to accept and what to reject, often being influenced in
this by peers;
* peer pressure is more important – in traditional societies age groups are
bound together by rites of passage into peer groups that can strongly
influence behaviour;
* peer groups are more important – in school children are brought together
in age-based classes, they often spend a lot of time together and form
strong friendship bonds that may last throughout their lives, thus having
an emotional effect that transcends the messages promulgated in the
media;
* education is arguably the most effective agency of secondary socialisation
– both the formal and hidden curriculum set young people up with the
knowledge and skills they need for the workplace and learning is now ‘lifelong;’
* in some cultures religion exerts a far more powerful influence than the
media – providing the moral framework through which all interactions,
including with the media, take place;
* religious leaders and holy books can have a more powerful effect than
media ‘propaganda;’
* the workplace is crucial to the welfare of individuals who will accept resocialisation into new norms and values and who will exert great efforts to
avoid the sanctions (such as being dismissed) and to reap to the rewards
(such as promotion and higher pay/status) given for conformity in the
workplace;

Question 11

What is meant by the term ‘primary socialisation’? [2]

Answer 11

the first and most important period of
socialisation in which the individual learns the basic norms and values of
society.

Question 12

Describe two ways formal agents of social control ensure conformity. [4]

Answer 12

 police − regulate behaviour through legal powers such as arrest; also
function as a deterrent when on the street etc.;
 the courts − issue sentences and punishments for criminal behaviour
e.g. custodial sentence, a fine, community sentences;
 the government − they make the laws which regulate social behaviour
and often set the list of legal punishments;
 prisons − keep offenders in custody as directed by courts, deprives
people of their liberty;
 the armed forces − can be used to control the population of perceived
offenders e.g. in a riot situation or when martial law has been
introduced;
 formal agents control through a system of rewards and sanctions that
are linked to rules and/or laws;
 agents like education and workplaces may exercise formal control
through sanctions such as expulsion or being fired for breaking written
rules;

Question 13

Explain how the peer group influences young people during adolescence. [6]

Answer 13

 positive peer pressure − where the peer group encourages individuals
to abide by social norms and values by compliments, verbal praise etc.;
 negative peer pressure − the peer group sanction or punish individuals
who are deemed to be straying from expected norms or values e.g.
through ostracism, ridicule, bullying etc.;
 role models − where influential and high−status individuals in the peer
group function as examples for others to copy or imitate;
 ostracism − the threat or actual exclusion of someone from the peer
group, this is particularly effective due the adolescent need to ‘fit in’;
 the peer group acts as an agency of secondary socialisation and
adolescents will want to fit in and be accepted by their peers because
they spend much of their time together thus accepting their norms and
values;
 reinforce gender roles − the peer group expectations of how a
male/female looks and behaves will influence individuals due to their
desire to belong to their group;
 peer groups may encourage deviant behaviour such as experimentation
with alcohol, drugs etc. and may use both positive and negative
sanctions to influence individual members;
 peer groups may create anti−school or other subcultures which may
encourage anti−social behaviours;

Question 14

Explain why the hidden curriculum is an effective way of socialising students. [8]

Answer 14

 it is not taught directly − its messages are promoted in a variety of ways
such as posters, assemblies and teacher expectations which constantly
reinforce the key norms and values for pupils;
 it teaches the norms and values of society as part of secondary
socialisation − its key messages build on and reinforce those already
learned in primary socialisation e.g. morals;
 Marxists argue that it successfully reproduces class for capitalism −
through teaching docility and conformity to working class children;
 functionalists argue that the hidden curriculum is effective in laying the
foundations for an individual to achieve his/her status in life e.g.
messages about meritocracy and the justice of rewards are sent out to
encourage pupils to strive for higher achievement;
 it may occur through the curriculum − both what is and what is not
included e.g. an ethnocentric curriculum may reinforce the message
that ethnic minorities are not valued and play little part in society;
 the hidden curriculum uses techniques such as canalisation and
manipulation to reinforce traditional gender roles and these are difficult
to completely shake off in later life;
 children are in school with their peers for a long time each day and
hence the constant bombardment of what is and is not acceptable takes
its toll and most children conform;
 the importance of rules is taught via the hidden curriculum and
sanctions and rewards are used to enforce these rules;

Question 15

To what extent is gender the most important aspect of social identity? [15]

Answer 15

Possible arguments for:
 in some societies gender roles are fixed and there is little individuals
can do to negotiate them and so they may seem fixed and ‘natural’ e.g.
traditional notions of males as breadwinners and women as
child−carers and housewives;
 in many societies males adopt an instrumental role looking after the
economic and practical needs of the family and women adopt the
expressive role of cooking, looking after the home and the emotional
needs of the family − these roles are seen as fundamental to social
stability;
 children are socialised into gender stereotyped identities via processes
such as canalisation, manipulation and verbal appellation (Oakley) and
such processes can be extremely hard to resist or rebel against e.g.
Barrie Thorne’s work;
 gender determines life chances − gender−based inequalities such as
those in the workplace show that gender remains key to an individual’s
chances for wealth, status and well−being;
 gender stereotypes still abound in the media − women are depicted as
inferior, weak sex objects and men are shown as protectors and heroes
and this shows that both men and women are still seen in terms of
traditional roles;
 gender expectations in the workplace shape our sense of self e.g.
norms of appearance for women and men are often different;
 the gendered division of labour in the workplace influences how we see
ourselves in relation to colleagues e.g. women often occupy lower
positions due to vertical segregation;
 social identity is influenced by gender norms and expectations in
education such as subject choice, friendship groups, subcultures, dress
codes and teacher expectations and labelling;
 peer groups are often formed along gender lines and subsequently
shape the way we see ourselves in relation to the group e.g. single−sex
friendship groups reinforce traditional gender;
 many religions have different expectations for different genders and
within the leadership roles are segregated along gender lines e.g. in
Catholicism women can still not become priests or the wearing of hijab
or burka to preserve female modesty;

Possible arguments against:
 according to postmodernists gender is far more fluid these days as
alternative and non−traditional role models are emerging and this
ultimately minimises the effects of traditional gender stereotypes;
 traditional notions of gender are breaking down, we now have multiple
acceptable masculinities and femininities, gender convergence etc., and
so traditional ideas of gender are a far less important factor in shaping
our sense of self;
 Marxists would argue that social class and access to social and cultural
capital is more important in shaping our social identity as it determines
who we interact with, our aspirations and our life chances;
 for some groups race, ethnicity and religious background are more
important influences upon social identity than gender e.g. nationalist
groups or religious cults/sects;
 social identity is not fixed and as we get older our age is important in
shaping our sense of self;
 gender does not work in isolation and it is a combination of factors,
such as age, ethnicity and gender that operate together to influence our
social identity;
 postmodernists would argue that we live in a consumer society and a
media−saturated society and in such a reality we are free to choose our
identity via our consumption patterns and lifestyle choices – traditional
sources of identity such as gender have dwindled in importance;

Question 16

What is meant by the term ‘ethnicity’? [2]

Answer 16

the fact or state of belonging to a social
group that has a common national or cultural tradition

Question 17

Describe two examples of customs. [4]

Answer 17

• in some countries bowing to older people is polite and respectful;
• in some countries you take your shoes off before entering the house as
  shoes are considered dirty so this is a mark of respect;
• in the US it is a custom to share a Thanksgiving dinner with your family
  which serves to strengthen bonds between family members;
• in Spain having finished a meal you should lay your knife and fork parallel
  on your plate, tines facing up, with the handles facing to the right, this lets
  the host know that you have finished eating;
• to eat certain foods e.g. in Japan it is customary to eat sushi;
• how people eat e.g. Chinese people using chopsticks whilst British
  people use knives and forks;
• to wear certain clothes e.g. for women to wear hijab in Muslim cultures;

Question 18

Explain how peer groups encourage conformity. [6]

Answer 18

• offering peer support via advice, emotional support etc. may encourage
  individuals to conform either to the group’s norms and values or wider
  society;
• peers may use bullying including cyber bullying as strategies for making
  members conform;
• the use of exclusion/ostracism/shunning is a common technique used to
  make individuals conform to the norms and values of the group;
• peer pressure refers to the influence a peer group has to force or
  persuade its members to conform;
• name calling, sarcasm and mockery, including making an individual the
  butt of jokes, are common ways to ensure conformity;
• disapproving looks or glares act as a signal of disapproval and a warning
  that an individual is straying from the acceptable norms;
• shaming via social networks may be effective in making members
  conform to the group norms and values;
• rewards for positive group behaviour (giving praise or status) are likely to
  encourage conformity;

Question 19

Explain why living in a multicultural society may benefit its members. [8]

Answer 19

• because living alongside other ethnicities in a harmonious society creates
  a greater respect for each other’s culture resulting in less conflict, racism
  etc.;
• because through bringing cultures together positive hybrid identities may
  emerge;
• because when different groups have to live together individuals must show
  greater tolerance for different cultures;
• because multicultural societies are dynamic and lead to a far more
  interesting and diverse society;
• because in multicultural societies individuals can practice whatever
  religion they choose;
• because multiculturalism allows all individuals to engage with aspects of
  other cultures e.g. eating curry in the UK;
• because individuals in multicultural societies have more freedoms, they
  can wear what they want, eat what they want, etc.;
• because multiculturalism makes a society more open to change, creating
  new opportunities for all;
• because in multicultural societies young people grow up accepting that
  diversity is normal, that everyone is entitled to live life the way they want;

Question 20

To what extent is childhood a social construction? [15]

Answer 20

Arguments for:
* the fact that children must be socialised into human norms and values,
otherwise they end up as feral, shows that childhood is a social
construction – could be developed via various processes such as primary
socialisation, hidden curriculum etc.;
* what is seen as childhood is relative to place e.g. childhood is very
different for a child going to school in Sweden compared to a child
working on a plantation in Burkino Faso;
* what is seen as childhood is relative to time e.g. childhood was very
different for a child living 200 years ago compared to the experience of
childhood today – Ariès, Postman;
* childhood can be a very different experience for different social groups, for
example the childhood of working-class children may be very different to
children from upper class backgrounds;
* children have less power and status in some societies whereas other
societies are child-centred;
* socialisation processes are different across societies and so children grow
up with different norms and values that shape their childhood experience;
* laws vary on the definition of childhood, both through time and across
societies;
* laws vary on rights of a child, both through time and across societies;

Arguments against:
* there is clear agreement about what childhood is and should be like e.g.
the United Nations have established children’s universal rights such as
limiting the hours children should work;
* sociobiologists argue that childhood is a natural biological life stage and
this is common across cultures – this may be true despite accepting that
children still require some degree of socialisation;
* children across the world are cared for and nurtured by the adults around
them, this demonstrates that childhood is a universal experience;
* there are clear biological differences between adults and children e.g.
physical immaturity, such physical differences occur in all societies;
* despite differences across the world the age one is considered a child and
their journey to adulthood shares many similarities;
* children are emotionally and physically dependent on adults and so
across societies all children require support and protection;

Question 21

What is meant by the term ‘values’? [2]

Answer 21

standards shared by members of a
culture and used to judge whether behaviour is right or wrong

Question 22

Describe two features of a multicultural society. [4]

Answer 22

• a variety of spoken languages can be found in multicultural societies, for
  example Belgium has three official languages;
• multicultural societies can be home to a wide range of customs and
  traditions, for example religious festivals or ceremonies;
• a range of different foods from different cultures e.g. Chinese and Indian
  food in the UK;
• within one society many social groups have different clothing e.g.
  shalwar kameez, saris, kippah;
• there can be many religious groups for example in India, while most
  people are Hindus there are also Muslims, Christians and Buddhists;
• multicultural societies can be home to hybrid cultural identities where
  individuals embrace norms of both the ethnic minority and majority;
• multicultural societies are made up of many different cultures co-existing
  side by side respecting each other’s traditions and lifestyles;
• conflict – some multicultural societies may feature racism, discrimination
  and scapegoating when the ethnic majority blame minority groups for
  social issues;

Question 23

Explain how individuals may achieve a higher status in society. [6]

Answer 23

• through charitable work and dedication which can be rewarded with
  greater prestige, respect and status;
• social media gives the individual new opportunities to increase their
  public profile and enhance their status by becoming influencers;
• by working hard and gaining promotion and thus earning a higher status
  within an organisation e.g. a supervisory or managerial role;
• through educational success gaining qualifications which can bring
  status in themselves e.g. degree and higher degrees or as a route to
  higher status as part of a job;
• through dedication e.g. being a professional athlete requires talent,
  dedication and hard work and often brings high status if successful;
• joining a sub-culture – some youths experience status frustration and
  join with their peers in a group where they can achieve more respect
  and prestige e.g. youth sub-cultures like Goths, K Pop or delinquent
  gangs;
• becoming an accomplished criminal – e.g. within a gang engaging in
  highly deviant acts may bring higher status within the hierarchy;
• through marriage which can be a route to higher status, particularly in
  traditional societies;
• functionalists argue meritocratic societies provide an environment in
  which it is possible to raise one’s status by, for example, working hard;
• through mass media recognition people can gain celebrity status;

Question 24

Explain why rewards and sanctions are useful for social control. [8]

Answer 24

• the fear of being ostracised or shunned by a peer group is likely to
  prevent a member from going against the norms;
• imprisonment or other legal sanctions are serious and have implications
  for an individual’s future;
• physical punishment, e.g. hitting will make individuals less likely to
  deviate from accepted norms;
• receiving a reprimand, e.g. verbal telling off at home or at school can be
  shaming and therefore it is to be avoided;
• some institutions have huge importance, for example religions in some
  societies and fear of their sanctions makes individuals conform;
• receiving a reward from a parent, e.g. extra pocket money for good
  behaviour will encourage the child to repeat the desired behaviour;
• receiving rewards at school such as prizes or certificates encourage
  students to continue to work hard and increase their chances of
  educational success;
• financial rewards for conforming, e.g. those who fulfil the role of good
  worker are given a pay rise and/or promotion for hard work and are
  highly desired;

Question 25

To what extent is nurture more important than nature in explaining human behaviour? [15]

Answer 25

Arguments for:
* social relativity of gender roles, i.e. in different societies gender roles are
different suggesting nurture is the more important;
* cultural traditions e.g. religion at times demands that we overcome
natural instincts e.g. fasting or celibacy;
* inadequate socialisation, i.e. individuals may not be recognisably human
without socialisation, e.g. feral children;
* Ann Oakley’s theories of primary socialisation suggest nurture best
explains human behaviour;
* different ethnicities are socialised to accept culturally specific norms and
values, different cultural norms and values points to the importance of
nurture over nature;
* the role of agencies and processes of socialisation/re-socialisation in
developing human behaviour in society, e.g. the hidden curriculum in
school or the training in the workplace;

Arguments against:
* Talcott Parson’s theory of woman’s expressive role is influenced by
biological determinism;
* Aggression – it is argued that an individual’s propensity for aggressive
behaviour is genetically determined – aggressive responses are in our
DNA;
* hormones and changes in hormone levels will affect an individual’s
mood and behaviour;
* Sociobiologists argue that much of human behaviour is driven by
‘natural instincts’ such as hunger, fear or the drive to reproduce;
* mothering instinct, Bowlby’s work on maternal deprivation concludes
that the maternal instinct is innate;
* intelligence – it is argued by some that intelligence is determined by
genetic inheritance;
* physical appearance is a key part of our identity and is inherited
genetically e.g. skin colour;

Question 26

What is meant by the term ‘social interaction’? [2]

Answer 26

a situation in which two or more people
have social contact with each other

Question 27

Describe two roles that adolescents may have in modern industrial societies. [4]

Answer 27

• son or daughter – role defined by relationship to and expectations of
  parent(s);
• student – role defined by expected behaviours in school such as being
  punctual or completing homework;
• employee – many adolescents have part-time paid jobs outside of school;
• friend – adolescents will follow the norms of their peer/friendship group;
• member of a sub-culture – adolescents join sub-cultures such as punks or
  Goths where they play a deviant role;

Question 28

Explain how value consensus is maintained. [6]

Answer 28

• functionalist theory (organic analogy) – social institutions work together to
  maintain social order and avoid chaos;
• processes of socialisation – learning common norms and values
  especially during secondary socialisation means that people have
  common beliefs and standards;
• hidden curriculum in school (e.g. hierarchy/respect for authority) is taught
  through the use of rewards and sanctions leading to social consensus and
  social order;
• through media representations which reinforce societal values and norms
  of behaviour;
• the use of peer pressure in enforcing values (of society or the peer group)
  via ostracism for example;
• coercion e.g. those who don’t conform to the consensus face serious
  sanctions e.g. prison and this sends a message/deters others from
  straying from the value consensus;
• the workplace reinforces expected values through rewards and sanctions
  e.g. promotion or dismissal;
• in the family via primary socialisation e.g. values of respect for elders are
  encouraged and reinforced;
• ideological state apparatus – the Marxist view of agencies of socialisation
  as brainwashing people into a common set of values which reinforces the
  inequalities at the heart of capitalism;

Question 29

Explain why gender is an important influence on identity. [8]

Answer 29

• because gendered primary socialisation shapes how individuals see
  themselves and their place in the family and this can impact on identity
  e.g. Oakley;
• the education process is often different for boys and girls leading to
  different life chances, this will ultimately affect how individuals see
  themselves;
• because family roles are highly gendered all come with attendant status,
  norms and values, legal rights and responsibilities and they are seen as
  an important part of an individual’s identity;
• because the workplace is segregated through gender (vertically and
  horizontally) and the place a person occupies in the workplace is
  important to individuals and how they see themselves;
• because peer groups and sub-cultural groups are often gendered and
  these associations have a profound effect on individuals and how they are
  seen by others;
• because some ascribed statuses are given according to gender e.g.
  daughter/son and these set expectations for how others see individuals
  and thus shape identity;
• because most religions are highly gendered, belonging to a particular faith
  is likely to shape an individual’s identity as different expectations and roles
  are given to different genders;

Question 30

To what extent are Marxist explanations of youth sub-cultures the most useful? [15]

Answer 30

Arguments for:
* Marxists argue that youth sub-cultures are a form of resistance against
capitalism e.g. skinheads;
* Marxists argue working class youth sub-cultures are formed as other
routes to resistance are blocked for such groups who lack power and
status;
* Marxists argue (P Cohen) the skinhead sub-culture formed as a reaction
to the decline of manufacturing and as a means of protecting workingclass identity;
* other Marxists (Brake) argue working class youth sub-cultures are
‘magical’ they provide each new generation with a chance to prove they
are unique;
* class was an important element with teddy boys who took their style from
the upper-class Edwardians to show their new affluence;
* Marxists see working-class youth sub-cultures as linked to the decline of
working-class inner-city communities;

Arguments against:
* functionalists argue youth sub-cultures are a way of managing the
transition from childhood to adulthood;
* functionalists argue youth sub-cultures act as a ‘safety valve’ and people
join to help them manage going through adolescence;
* functionalists claim that youth sub-cultures provide an alternative
opportunity structure where the young can gain status and respect;
* functionalists argue (Eisenstadt) that young people need to find a way to
distinguish themselves from their parents and youth sub-cultures are a
vehicle for this;
* postmodernists argue youth sub-cultures no longer have a clear purpose,
young people join for thrills and leave, sub-cultures are transient;
* feminists such as McRobbie argued girls created a bedroom sub-culture
to create a space away not just away from adults but also from boys;
* labelling theory suggests that pupil sub-cultures are a response to inschool processes such as teacher labelling;
* Paul Willis argued counter school sub-cultures were formed because the
lads saw school and academic learning as pointless to their future lives as
factory workers;
* ethnicity and anti-school sub-cultures Sewell claimed that Black
Caribbean boys may experience pressure by their peers to adopt the
norms of an ‘urban’ or ‘street’ sub-culture;

Question 31

What is meant by the term ‘role modelling’? [2]

Answer 31

acting as an example so that this
behaviour is copied by others

Question 32

Describe two features of traditional femininity. [4]

Answer 32

 maternal – traditionally women have been expected to show ‘motherly’
feelings such as love, protectiveness etc. towards babies and children;
 housewife role – traditionally women take on most of the housework,
including associated ‘emotional’ work;
 preoccupied with appearance and attractiveness – traditionally women are
expected to take more care with their appearance both in terms of
hair/make-up and clothing;
 emotional – traditionally women have been seen to show their emotions
e.g. crying when upset;
 dependent – traditionally women have been encouraged to be
financially and physically dependent upon men for their well-being;
 wearing make-up – traditionally women are encouraged to use make-up
to enhance their attractiveness to men, with beauty becoming a ‘daily
routine;’

Question 33

Explain how socialisation occurs through the hidden curriculum. [6]

Answer 33

 it socialises children into the importance of punctuality by rewards and
sanctions e.g. certificates for 100% attendance;
 it promotes conformity by having clear rules and regulations. Systems of
rewards and sanctions are used to ensure that children conform to the
acceptable norms and values;
 Marxists argue that it promotes the naturalness of hierarchies in society
and thus prepares working class children to accept their superiors in the
workplace;
 feminists argue that traditional gender identities are reinforced via the
hidden curriculum e.g. via textbook representations, teach expectations
etc.;
 the importance of a smart and business-like appearance is stressed
through posters and sanctions;
 good behaviour may be rewarded with treat trips, stickers, stamps etc.
whilst poor behaviour will result in punishments such as detentions,
communication with parents etc.;
 students learn norms and values from their peers in school e.g. through
positive and negative peer pressure;

Question 34

Explain why sub-cultures exist in society. [8]

Answer 34

 functionalists argue that youth sub-cultures function as a safety valve,
helping young people to manage the difficult and turbulent period of
adolescence;
 New Right sociologists think that some criminal sub-cultures exist
because of poor socialisation and lack of appropriate role models within
some working or underclass families;
 functionalists argue that some sub-cultures may be formed because the
normal and legitimate routes to material success and status in society
are blocked e.g. Cloward and Ohlin;
 Marxists argue that youth sub-cultures are an act of rebellion and
resistance to the inequalities of capitalism e.g. Cohen’s analysis of
skinheads in 1970s Britain;
 feminists such as McRobbie argue that girls may join a bedroom subculture to experiment with deviant activities e.g. smoking and drinking
alcohol, and because they are prohibited or kept on the fringes of maledominated subcultures;
 Cohen suggests that some pupils join anti-school sub-cultures because
they are denied status and respect in a system which labels them as
‘losers;’
 some members of ethnic minorities may form extreme or deviant
religious sub-cultures because they are marginalised and socially
excluded from mainstream society;
 some sub-cultures form purely out of shared interests e.g. in music and
clothing;

Question 35

To what extent is religion the most effective agent of social control? [15]

Answer 35

Arguments for:
 religions teach codes of ethics e.g. 10 commandments in Christianity –
these guide and channel the behaviour and social interactions of
believers;
 each religion has a set of informal and formal rewards and sanctions
which it can apply to ensure that members conform such as ostracism or
ex-communication;
 the threat of going to hell or the promise of eternal life in heaven is the
ultimate way of ensuring that believers conform to the religious rules
and way of life;
 religion is an effective way of teaching cultural norms such as those
surrounding diet e.g. Kosher or halal systems, and dress e.g. use of veil
or kippah etc.;
 Marxists argue that religion is a form of ideology which keeps people
passive and tolerant of the status quo;
 religious leaders function as role models for believers to imitate and this
ensures continuity of norms and values across generations and
cultures;

Arguments against:
 in the West societies are becoming increasingly secular and hence
religion is losing its effectiveness in controlling people’s behaviour e.g.
the increasing use of contraception, even in countries with high levels of
religiosity;
 in today’s global society the media is now a much more effective tool for
social control due to the 24/7 media culture and the pervasiveness of
mobile technology;
 for some groups, such as adolescents, the peer group is far more
effective than religion in controlling behaviour e.g. through peer
pressure, the threat of ostracism and the need for belonging;
 the family is far more effective than religion as primary socialisation
shapes attitudes and transmits core norms and values which are then
enforced through the family’s use of a range of sanctions and rewards;
 the workplace is more influential than religion for many people as their
financial and material well-being is tied to success at work and this
means that employees will try hard to achieve rewards such as pay
rises and promotions and avoid sanctions such as warnings or being
fired from their job;
 education is more effective at controlling young people’s behaviour as
pupils spend a lot of time at school where they are exposed to the
hidden curriculum, part of which is a set of rules and expectations with a
system of rewards and sanctions to reinforce it;
 some argue that formal agencies such as the police and courts are far
more effective in controlling individuals than any of the informal
agencies because of the seriousness of their sanctions e.g. fines and
imprisonment;

Question 36

What is meant by the term ‘globalisation’? [2]

Answer 36

the complex process by which different
cultures around the world are increasingly aware of, interact and influence
each other.

Question 37

Describe two agents of formal social control. [4]

Answer 37

• police – they have the legal power to enforce the laws set down by
  government e.g. by arrests, fines, cautions etc.;
• courts – they have the legal power to sentence those found guilty of
  crimes e.g. custodial sentences such as a term in prison and noncustodial sentences such as fines, ASBOs, tags etc.;
• prison – they have the power to keep people locked up and deprived of
  certain usual rights e.g. people can be subject to random searches,
  may not be able to vote etc.;
• armed forces – have the legal power to kill in certain circumstances and
  may effectively police behaviour under martial law;
• government – they create the laws by which all in society are bound
  and they create the tariff of punishments which are applied for deviance
  from the laws;
• education/schools – schools enforce laws on behalf of the government
  (e.g. fining parents for taking unauthorised holidays) and also have their
  own rules with set sanctions to ensure conformity;
• workplace/employers – written rules such as formal work contracts with
  codes of behaviour to control people’s behaviour and often have clear
  sanctions in place for violations e.g. written warnings and dismissal;

Question 38

Explain how canalisation influences gender identity. [6]

Answer 38

• playing with gender stereotyped toys can channel boys and girls into
  traditional gender identities e.g. boys playing with guns encourages
  combative masculinity;
• parents channel their children into traditional gender identities through
  their choice of books and videos e.g. Disney films in which the prince
  saves the day and the world and the girl;
• children are encouraged into playing gender specific sports which
  encourage traditional gender identities e.g. girls playing safer and
  ‘cleaner’ non-contact sports such as netball whilst boys do contact
  sports such as rugby where they may get dirty and have contact with
  other boys;
• physical activities seen as appropriate to the gender identity of females
  such as dance or ballet class foster the idea that girls should be
  graceful;
• ‘girly’ activities such as being encouraged to learn how to apply makeup encourages girls to take pride in their appearance and achieve a
  flawless look;
• canalisation is used in primary socialisation when children internalize
  the gendered messages about their expected gender roles;

Question 39

Explain why schools are an important agent of socialisation. [8]

Answer 39

• schools perform a social control function through their system of
  rewards and sanctions, reinforcing and extending the informal controls
  established in primary socialisation and preparing children to integrate
  into wider society;
• schools socialise children into social norms and values through the
  hidden curriculum e.g. teaching them to be punctual, to dress
  appropriately and to have a good work attitude and work ethic;
• mixing in peer groups at school helps children to see the importance of
  fitting in and gives them a sense of belonging which aids their
  integration into wider society;
• aspects of the formal curriculum give young people a sense of national
  identity through, for example, learning their history, culture and national
  literature as well as citizenship;
• schools prepare young people to enter the workplace by teaching them
  the appropriate norms and values e.g. Bowles and Gintis
  correspondence theory;
• schools socialise children into their gender identity through teacher
  expectations, textbooks, dress codes, gender subject choices etc.;

Question 40

To what extent is multiculturalism a strength of modern industrial societies? [15]

Answer 40

Arguments for:
* multiculturalism allows smaller cultures to maintain their language and
cultural norms;
* a multicultural society encourages greater tolerance and understanding
of difference because culture is seen as something to be protected and
celebrated;
* multiculturalism brings diversification in cultural products – so there is
greater cultural diversity in foods, drink, dress, music etc. and this
enriches society as a whole;
* multiculturalism has historically brought a variety of skills and
knowledge into one country which may lead to increased
entrepreneurialism and trading opportunities;
* cities that are culturally diverse are often popular tourist destinations
e.g. London – many find the diversity enriching;

Arguments against:
* multiculturalism may lead to language barriers – if ethnic minorities
continue to speak their own language it may hold back their chances for
social mobility or their children’s chances of doing well in education
which means that inequalities continue from one generation to another;
* in some countries multiculturalism has led to increased nationalism,
often based on asserting the primacy of one culture – sometimes
leading to struggles for independence and the fracturing of nation
states;
* forced multiculturalism e.g. due to colonisation has often led to
conflict/racism between different ethnic communities;
* diversity of culture can lead to conflict as some argue that minority
cultures are given too many rights e.g. if they have the right to have
their children educated in their native language this may be expensive
to provide;
* some minority cultures may stay too separate from the host community
so there is too little integration resulting in a defensive mindset and
possibly to extremism;
* multiculturalism is too idealistic – it is unlikely that very different cultures
can co-exist harmoniously if they have radically different norms and
values;
* many countries in the West which have experienced high levels of
immigration are now using citizenship tests to ensure that people
understand the core culture, laws and history;

Question 41

What is meant by the term ‘stereotype’? [2]

Answer 41

a usually negative generalisation of a
whole social group

Question 42

Describe two features of traditional masculinity. [4]

Answer 42

 strength – traditional males are depicted in the media as muscular and
physically strong;
 competitive – traditionally males vie for dominance with each other in
the workplace, in attracting females and in areas like sport;
 aggressive – males are traditionally prone to violence and this is
reflected in crime figures, in business activities and in sports such as
rugby and boxing;
 unemotional – the traditional male does not show his feelings as this
may be viewed as a weakness and ‘feminine’; young males may be
manipulated into hiding their fears and other ‘negative’ emotions;
 active – traditionally males are seen as ‘doers’ and more practically
minded than women; this is shown through their interests in mechanics,
engineering, construction etc. as well as taking the lead in activities
rather than being ‘led’;
 instrumental role – men are typically viewed as the breadwinner rather
than the nurturer;

Question 43

Explain how a person’s identity is influenced by social institutions. [6]

Answer 43

 schools use the hidden curriculum to socialise young people into the
norms and values of society e.g. gender norms, national identity etc.;
 the family socialises people into their gender identity via strategies such
as canalisation, manipulation and verbal appellations;
 religion socialises individuals into an ethnic identity e.g. Muslim values
of modesty and obedience, norms such as the wearing of the hijab and
the observance of shared traditions such as Ramadan;
 the media reinforces social class identities though stereotypes e.g. of
the underclass as lazy, welfare dependent and prone to crime and
deviance;
 the law encourages conformity via a clear set of negative sanctions for
deviance;
 the peer group socialises individuals via role-modelling and sanctions;

Question 44

Explain why some sub-cultures do not conform to the norms and values of society. [8]

Answer 44

 youth sub-cultures may provide a safety valve, allowing young people to
deviate from social norms and experiment with alternative values during
the difficult period of transition and integration into adult society;
 Marxists argue that youth sub-cultures act as a form of resistance to
capitalism and its values e.g. Cohen’s study of the meaning of skinhead
norms and values;
 Albert Cohen argues that some sub-cultures are a sign of status
frustration and in finding the usual routes to status blocked develop
alternative and deviant norms which are positively valued;
 religious sub-cultures often reject mainstream culture in favour of
alternatives that are biblically rooted e.g. Amish reject many aspects of
modern life including most technology;
 some sub-cultures are a way of rebelling against social norms and
values which are seen as ‘uncool’ or ‘old-fashioned’ e.g. punk subculture introduced radical new hairstyles, clothing and accessorising;
 feminists like Jackson argue that the ladette sub-culture is a reaction to
oppressive stereotypes about young women resulting in young women
having ‘unfeminine’ norms and values such as swearing, fighting and
binge-drinking;

Question 45

To what extent is the family the most important agent of social control? [15]

Answer 45

Arguments for:
 the family maintains close emotional bonds and is therefore a potent
influence on its members as they do not wish to disappoint loved ones,
so the controls practised in the family serve as the basis for wider social
conformity;
 the family is the primary agent of socialisation and social control and
without it children would be unsocialised e.g. stories of feral children
such as Oxana Malaya and Genie Wylie;
 social controls within the family are effective because they start early
and are reinforced on a daily basis, so consistent control through
strategies such as verbal praise, encouragement or glares, telling off or
informal punishments teach children right from wrong and this sets
them on the right track to social conformity;
 children learn to conform to the norms of their gender roles within the
family through strategies such as canalisation and manipulation and this
shapes the individual’s identity appearance, behaviour for life;
 children learn to conform to the norms and values of their ethnicity and
religion via familial social controls and this can sometimes conflict with
the norms and values of mainstream society;

Arguments against:
 the police and other formal agents of social control are more important
as the consequences of breaching the rules they protect are more
serious than any informal sanctions e.g. including fines and
imprisonment;
 schools may be just as important in the social control of children –
children learn to obey both formal and informal rules through the hidden
curriculum;
 for those with religious beliefs the guidelines and laws offered by
religious traditions act as a powerful social control mechanism e.g. the
ultimate reward of heaven and negative sanction of hell far outstrip mild
familial sanctions;
 the media today are a more important form of control than the family –
in a 24/7 media culture they offer role models and constant messages
about how to behave and a reminder about the consequences of
deviation from popular norms and values;
 the workplace is very influential as a form of social control as people are
dependent upon it for their financial well-being – incentives such as
promotion, pay rises and bonuses, as well as the underlying threats of
warnings and dismissal, ensure that workers follow employer norms
and values;
 the peer group is arguably more influential for young people than the
family – individuals feel a need for belonging and the threat of ostracism
and rejection is a powerful stimulus to conformity with the group norms
and values;

Question 46

What is meant by the term ‘social identity’? [2]

Answer 46

individuals’ perception of themselves,
based partly on ideas about how others see them.

Question 47

Describe two processes of primary socialisation. [4]

Answer 47

• teaching of social norms, values and basic skills to children by parents
  e.g. how to eat properly;
• manipulation – the encouragement of behaviour that is seen as normal
  for a child and discouragement of behaviour seen as abnormal or
  normal for the other sex;
• canalisation – the channelling of attention onto different things,
  depending upon the sex of the child, e.g. girls helping their mother or
  boys being encouraged to play football with their father;
• verbal appellation – using different words and phrases with different
  sexes, for example good girl and brave boy;
• different activities – promoting different activities between boys and
  girls;
• the use of sanctions, rewards and coercion – to control behaviour and
  instil norms and values;
• role modelling e.g. father figure, mothering role e.g. parent showing
  child suitable behaviour;
• imitation – young children learning by copying the behaviour of their
  parents or other family members;

Question 48

Explain how social order is maintained in modern industrial societies. [6]

Answer 48

• fines, these are common sanctions used for minor offences;
• community service is a sanction where offenders do not go to prison but
  are required to do unpaid public service to make amends;
• prison sentences are used for more serious offences and offenders are
  locked up having their liberty removed;
• capital punishment is a form of physical sanction (often meaning
  execution) that occurs in several MIS;
• restraining orders is a temporary court order issued to prohibit an
  individual from carrying out a particular action, especially approaching
  or contacting a specified person;
• tagging (known as electronic monitoring) is used to monitor curfews and
  conditions of a court or prison order;
• socialisation into norms and values ensures that individuals conform to
  social rules;

Question 49

Explain why inadequate socialisation might cause problems for society. [8]

Answer 49

because it’s dysfunctional for society, according to functionalists proper
socialisation is vital for transmitting values;
* because it may lead to anomie where societies see a breakdown in
value consensus;
* because crime and deviance may increase if individuals have not been
socialised to follow the rules of society;
* because feral children are the product of poor socialisation and their
lack of ability to function in mainstream society is a problem for us all;
* because it may encourage other social divisions, e.g. racism,
homophobia, sexism if individuals are not socialised to accept diversity;

Question 50

To what extent is the workplace the most effective agent of social control? [15]

Answer 50

Arguments for:
* the workplace is an effective agent of social control for adults as it
impacts the economic well-being and future life chances of individuals
and their families;
* the threat of sanctions, such as dismissal, provides a real control on
workers lives and make them adhere to the expected norms of the
workplace;
* the promise of rewards like promotion and higher pay and status are
powerful tools in ensuring people obey social norms and values;
* many individuals prioritise their work commitments over everything else
and so an agent with such a high priority can naturally be a more
effective form of social control;
* people’s sense of self and social identity are often bound up with work
so the workplace is better able to control people’s behaviour;
* a hierarchy is usually present within the workplace and workers are
expected to obey their employer’s instructions, otherwise sanctions will
be given;
* feminists might argue that the home is the workplace for many women
and that at home their lives are tightly controlled by the burden of
unpaid labour;

Arguments against:
* functionalists argue that the family is a particularly important agent of
social control and the basic building block for society in that it socialises
the young. The social control techniques used by parents within the
family – both positive and negative are crucial;
* some would argue that peers are more effective, particularly for the
young, through the various techniques of peer pressure such as
ostracism;
* functionalists argue that all the agents of informal social control are
needed in order to regulate behaviour and reinforce the collective
conscience – this is essential to the continuance of society e.g. the
organic analogy;
* the media can be a more effective agent of control via often
sensationalised accounts of criminal or deviant acts – they are
broadcasting the boundaries of acceptable behaviour;
* some feminists argue that the family most effectively socially controls
women and their bodies and labour via domestic violence and the free
work that women do in the home which helps to maintain capitalism;
* formal agents such as the police have the power to arrest and the threat
of this is more effective than any sanctions given in the workplace;
* formal agents such as courts give out sentences that include
imprisonment which takes away your liberty;
* in certain situations the armed forces may be used as a as a way of
coercing people into obedience, for example under martial law;

Question 51

What is meant by the term ‘masculinity’? [2]

Answer 51

expected attitudes and behaviour
associated with being a man in a particular culture

Question 52

Describe two sanctions used to control young people. [4]

Answer 52

• detentions in school;
• young offenders may be tagged, given a curfew or be given a custodial
  sentence for juvenile crimes;
• exclusion from school;
• ostracism from peer groups;
• being told off by parents;
• being grounded/curfew;
• positive sanctions such as rewards and praise are used in the family
  and schools;
• negative sanctions such as punishments given for breaking rules and
  regulations in school or in the home;

For the second mark candidates could either
give extra detail about the sanction identified or give some description of how the sanction was
effective in controlling young people, e.g. being kept in detention deterred students from
misbehaving in future.

Question 53

Explain how societies are culturally diverse. [6]

Answer 53

• language, the language spoken may vary between different cultural
  groups;
• norms of dress and appearance can be very different between groups
  for example in northern Paris many people can be seen wearing the
  dashiki clothing of West Africa;
• food and drink, clearly signifies cultural diversity – this can be seen in
  how people eat (e.g. chopsticks) or what people eat (e.g. halal);
• traditions such as rituals and festivals, these can differ across religious
  groups e.g. Ramadan and Christmas;
• some societies have a variety of sub-cultures who may follow distinct
  norms and values e.g. youth sub-cultures such as goths and punks;

Question 54

Explain why traditional femininity is changing. [8]

Answer 54

• because girls are now encouraged to study the same subjects as boys
  in school and are no longer doing traditional ‘feminine’ subjects such as
  home economics which prepared them for future roles as housewives
  and mothers;
• because the old divisions between expressive and instrumental roles
  are breaking down so the traditional family roles for women are
  changing;
• because patriarchal structures are breaking down with many societies
  having strong and assertive female leaders e.g. New Zealand;
• because anti-discrimination laws have given women and girls the same
  rights as men enabling them to break free from traditional roles;
• because positive role models e.g. in the media are inspiring women and
  girls to take up new roles and deviate from traditional representations of
  femininity;
• because gender identity is now contested, post-modernists argue the
  boundaries between femininity and masculinity are breaking down;
• social stereotypes of women are now being challenged and are
  breaking down, hence women are not just being defined as mothers
  and carers for example;

Question 56

What is meant by the term ‘coercion’? [2

Answer 56

the use or threat of force of violence
such as used by police.

Question 57

Explain how women may experience role conflict. [6]

Answer 57

• role conflict between work and parent, e.g. not being able to go to work
  because of a poorly child;
• role conflict between work and domestic duty, e.g. not being able to
  keep on top of domestic duties and manage a paid job – dual burden;
• role conflict between domestic duty and expressive role, e.g. not having
  time to play with and nurture children because domestic labour needs
  doing;
• role conflict between being a partner and mother, e.g. not being able to
  spend quality time with your partner because caring for the children
  leaves her too tired;
• role conflict between being a mother and a daughter e.g. tensions about
  how one’s mother looks after your child as attitudes to nurture change
  over time;

Question 58

Explain why value consensus is important for society. [8]

Answer 58

• because value consensus helps maintain social order, which is the way
  societies remain stable over time;
• because having shared values means members of society can get
  along with each other;
• because without value consensus we risk society breaking down falling
  into a state of anomie;
• because societies need value consensus for social conformity, this
  ensures we all act in accordance with norms and social expectations;
• because without value consensus there would be increased crime
  levels and society might become unsafe;

Question 59

To what extent is social identity influenced by social class? [15]

Answer 59

Arguments for:
* although working class incomes have changed there is still a gap
between the working class and middle and upper classes in terms of
consumption and lifestyle and this affects social identity;
* media reporting of the working-class has become very negative,
representing them stereotypically as lazy and scrounging off welfare;
* working class youth sub-cultures are an exaggeration of the workingclass identity e.g. skinheads (Cohen);
* different social classes have distinct values e.g. members of the upper
class are likely to see themselves as belonging to a sort of exclusive
club, based on their ability to spend a lot of money which signals their
wealth and difference to others;
* there is a strong sense of working-class community in areas with an
industrial past linked to manual work e.g. in the UK coal, steel and
shipbuilding industries boys would often follow their fathers to work and
marriages often were made in the community;
* membership of trade unions, voting patterns and shared working and
living conditions created a strong sense of collective identity that was
stronger in the working class than in some other classes;
* social class may still affect language e.g. restricted and elaborate code,
accent, etc. which can all create a sense of identity and belonging;
* different classes may participate in different cultural activities and this
can affect identity e.g. members of the working class may associate
themselves more with the products of popular rather than high culture;
* social class can also affect aspects of identity such as gender e.g. the
distinct norms of behaviour linked with the working class culture of
hegemonic masculinity;

• age is more important for adolescents – this is often seen as a difficult
  period because it involves an evolving identity and status anxiety; as a
  result peers often band closely together and create their own youth
  culture and sub-cultures which may give a strong sense of norms and
  values e.g. skinheads;
• gender as a social characteristic is more important than class in
  creating a sense of identity – early gender role socialisation (Oakley)
  instils a strong sense of who we are as individuals and feminists argue
  that this is more powerful than social class identity;
• nationality is now more important than class in creating a sense of
  identity – in recent times, and following globalisation, nationality has
  become more central to peoples’ identities e.g. in the rise of
  nationalism, Brexit, etc. and this crosses social class divides;
• ethnicity remains a strong influence on social identity and affects
  language, clothing, food and values e.g. in multi-ethnic countries like
  the UK communities such as the Pakistani or Chinese communities are
  often more closely bound by ethnic ties than social class
• the old working-class identity has now been weakened by the loss of
  jobs in the old manual industries and the fragmentation of the
  communities based on them so class identity is not now significant;
• some postmodernists argue that class culture has been replaced by
  consumer culture – what we buy and own shapes our identity more than
  our social class e.g. in MIS the working class now have the wealth to
  aspire to consumer goods and activities they could not afford in the past
  and use items to signal status;
• in more open and socially mobile societies traditional class
  characteristics have largely disappeared e.g. the old upper class has
  now fragmented, class boundaries have become blurred as people
  have moved up/down the class ladder;

Question 60

What is meant by the term ‘social institutions’? [2]

Answer 60

organisations or parts of society that
influence the norms and values of society

Question 61

Describe two ways nature affects human behaviour. [4]

Answer 61

• an individual’s personality may be influenced by genetic factors and
  hence their sociability, level of aggression etc. may also be affected;
• functionalists argue that gender is built upon sexual differences which
  are purely biological and this explains why women are expressive (e.g.
  housewife) and men are instrumental in their behaviour (e.g.
  breadwinner);
• some argue that males as physically suited to certain jobs because of
  their greater strengths (e.g. construction) whereas women as better at
  other jobs such as being office workers which isn’t physically
  demanding;
• sociobiologists argue that all human behaviour is directed by biological
  drives or natural instincts e.g. the desire for sex and reproduction;
• some sociobiologists argue that criminal behaviour may have a genetic
  component and that some are pre-disposed to
• rule-breaking behaviour;
• some argue that intelligence is more a product of nature than nurture
  and that it is therefore passed down from generation to generation;
• some believe that sexual orientation is genetic and thus more to do with
  nature – so whether people are heterosexual, homosexual or bi-sexual,
  for example, is determined by their genes;

Question 62

Explain how females are socialised into femininity. [6]

Answer 62

• girls are socialised into femininity via canalisation (Oakley) – the use of
  toys to reinforce gender stereotypes, for example playing with dolls
  reinforces norms about appearance and care-taking;
• manipulation – the use of activities to create and maintain traditional
  gender traits e.g. dance/ballet to encourage girls to be graceful and
  expressive;
• verbal appellation – the use of names and language that steers young
  girls into femininity e.g. ‘princess’;
• role models in the media – girls are encouraged to imitate celebrity role
  models enshrine the norms of femininity such as preoccupation with
  appearance;
• the hidden curriculum at school – via teacher expectations and
  encouragement of traditional feminine stereotypes i.e. girls as more
  passive and conforming, caring about being neat and tidy etc.;
• peer pressure – the use of positive and negative sanctions by peers to
  ensure that girls conform to the norms and values of femininity;
• religions socialise female into stereo typical femininity through the use
  of role models and religious texts pertaining to the appearance and
  behaviour of women;

Question 63

Explain why roles influence an individual’s identity. [8]

Answer 63

• gender roles influence individuals in terms of how they view themselves
  and also how others see them and this can impact on identity (e.g.
  housewife/mother and breadwinner/protector);
• family roles – the roles of mother, father and children all come with a
  certain status, norms and values, rights and responsibilities and they
  are seen as an important part of an individual’s identity;
• roles within the workplace – job roles can be profoundly important to
  individuals and how they see themselves and their status with some job
  roles being seen as a vocation e.g. nursing, teaching etc;
• conjugal roles within a partnership or marriage – whether these be
  traditional/segregated or more modern/integrated – give individuals a
  set of norms and values through which they conduct their most
  important and intimate relationship;
• roles can come with ascribed status because they may be inherited e.g.
  the royal family play an important social role in the UK;

Candidates scored marks for specific familial or job-related roles, and more general gender roles or
roles that are influenced by ethnicity. In some cases, candidates did not explain their points well
and such answers tended to score in the band 2 due to lack of conceptual engagement or partial
development of points made.

Question 64

To what extent is age the most important factor in a person’s social identity? [15]

Answer 64

Arguments for:
* age is often a boundary line for access to legal rights and
responsibilities e.g. in the UK the age of criminal responsibility is 12 and
individuals are not allowed to vote until 18 etc.;
* the elderly are often the subject of negative stereotyping in the media –
for example as frail, dependent and a burden – and this can affect the
way they are treated in society;
* the elderly have a distinct social identity in most societies – it is seen as
a time of disengagement from social roles and retirement as they make
way for the younger generation;
* youth is seen as a time of rebellion and experimentation as young
people establish their own identities, so youth sub-cultures are formed
with their own distinct norms and values sometimes in opposition to
mainstream society;
* children are seen as a distinct and vulnerable group requiring special
protection from exploitation hence the need for children to be given their
own legal and social ‘rights’;
* childhood is viewed as a time of innocence and play and this has led to
the emergence of whole industries devoted to the markets in products
and activities associated with children e.g. Disney;
* functionalists argue that adolescence is seen as a difficult period as it
brings status anxiety and as a result young people turn to their peers for
support in a youth culture which eases the transition to the expectations
of adulthood;
* generation gaps – members of the same age group are a generation
and a peer group who often share experiences and attitudes e.g.
teenagers may think that older people are ‘past it’ and older people may
see teenagers as disrespectful and anti-social;
* age is a social construction so the roles assigned to different age
groups vary across different societies e.g. children in western societies
spend a longer period relative to most other societies undergoing
socialisation into adult roles;

Arguments against:
* feminists argue that gender is more important than age as a source of
social identity – it pervades the life of all from cradle to grave and
impacts across age groups in terms of status, power and life chances;
* ethnicity is more important than age as a source of social identity for
many groups – norms and values linked to food, clothing, relationships
etc. are central to the social identity of many people;
* ethnic minority groups are often labelled negatively and this often
provides a platform for discrimination across age groups thus affecting
social identity and the way people are perceived by others;
* Marxists argue that social class is more important than age as each
class has its own distinct culture and their social identity is inevitably
linked to life chances with the upper class having the majority of the
power, status and privileges regardless of age;
* for some national identity is core to social identity and more important
than age – the rise of nationalist and separatist movements across the
world shows that it is national identity rather than age identity that is
central;
* postmodernists argue that the factors that used to influence and shape
our social identity – like age or gender – are now no longer important as
people can create their own identity through consumption and
style/lifestyle choices;

Question 65

What is meant by the term ‘adolescence’? [2]

Answer 65

the transition between being a child and
an adult

Question 66

Describe two ways the media socialises individuals. [4]

Answer 66

• the behaviour and appearance of role-models in the media are imitated by
  many, especially the young;
• individuals are manipulated by techniques used in the media such as
  advertising which may create ‘false needs’;
• representations of women and other groups in popular media are
  influential in establishing social expectations for various forms of social
  identity such as gender, age etc;
• the worldview reflected in global media is often a westernised or
  Americanised one which some may believe is leading to a global culture
  where individuals share common norms and values;
• the media socially controls individuals by showing the negative
  consequences of not conforming to social norms and values e.g.
  labelling, ‘naming and shaming’ etc.;
• the media uses praise and positive comments to show approval and
  reward conformity to social norms and values;
• social media ‘likes’ can be seen as a reward for and expression of social
  approval for conformity;
• cyberbullying and negative emojis online can be seen as expressions of
  disapproval and an attempt to negatively sanction an individual in order
  to bring them back to conformity with expected norms;

Question 67

Explain how values are a social construction. [6]

Answer 67

• values vary from society to society e.g. the acquisition of money brings
  status in some cultures whereas in others physical bravery or helping
  others may been seen as more important;
• values are created in and by society rather than being naturally
  occurring e.g. we are taught values by parents in primary socialisation;
• values vary between age groups e.g. the young may value appearance,
  popularity and peer approval more than older age groups;
• values differ according to social class e.g. the working classes may
  place more importance on immediate gratification whereas the middle
  classes may think deferred gratification is crucial to future success;
• values differ according to ethnicity and religion e.g. in many Asian and
  African cultures the extended family is still highly valued whereas it is not
  seen as important in more secularised western cultures;
• values differ across time e.g. marriages in medieval England were often
  arranged for the purposes of social mobility and the maintenance of
  privilege whereas now love and physical attraction are valued more highly
  as a basis for marriage;
• values are relative to time, place and culture, rather than being
  universal, and this shows that they are social constructions;
• values may differ according to gender e.g. women stereotypically may
  put more importance on appearance and relationships than men who
  may value success, competition and strength;
• laws in every society reflect the dominant values e.g. the law-change on
  homosexual marriage in the UK reflects changing values and hence the
  values are socially constructed;

Question 68

Explain why ethnicity is an important influence on social identity. [8]

Answer 68

• human beings are socialised into an ethnic identity through primary and
  secondary socialisation e.g. being taught to pray or observe cultural
  celebrations and festivals;
• ethnicity can affect what we eat e.g. prohibitions against pork in religions
  such as Judaism and Islam;
• ethnicity can affect gender roles e.g. the norms and expectations of the
  roles of women and men in Islam;
• ethnicity can affect age identity e.g. in some ethnic groups old age is
  generated and there is a gerontocracy;
• ethnicity can affect social identity through negative labelling and
  stereotyping of a group which may lead to discrimination and selffulfilling prophesy;
• ethnicity can affect the type of family you live in e.g. contrast the one
  (now three) child policy in China with the extended family networks
  often found in ethnic groups in India;
• social control is applied in some groups to those who transgress against
  ethnic norms and values e.g. sanctions against those who marry outside
  of their ethnic group;
• ethnic identity is often expressed through clothing as a ‘marker’ and
  displays our identity to the world e.g. the Jewish kippah is a visible sign
  of Jewish identity;
• ethnicity is sometimes linked to religion which can have a profound
  influence over the values and norms that an individual follows e.g.
  Muslims fasting during Ramadan;

Question 69

What is meant by the term ‘value consensus’? [2]

Answer 69

general agreement across a society on a
set of values

Question 70

Describe two examples of youth sub-cultures. [4]

Answer 70

• mods – rode scooters and wore Parker jackets;
• rockers – rode motorbikes and wore leather and denim;
• teddy boys – wore subverted Edwardian clothing;
• McRobbie’s bedroom culture – characterised by inhabiting a gendered
  space in the bedroom;
• goths – heavy make-up with black clothing;
• punks – ripped clothes and spikey hair;
• hippies – a middle class youth sub-culture that used drugs to explore their
  inner feelings;
• skinheads – based on aggressive masculine behaviour and the wearing
  of big boots;

To gain full marks, responses needed to unpack
youth sub-culture by describing their clothes/style, hair, music or norms and values

Question 71

Explain how children are socialised by agencies of secondary socialisation. [6]

Answer 71

• hidden curriculum – schools have many rules to which pupils must
  conform e.g. respect for teachers;
• sanctions – institutions such as school offer positive or negative sanctions
  to socialise pupils into accepting norms and values, the police also may
  sanction children to control deviant behaviour;
• rewards – religious organisations offer the promise of an afterlife to those
  who adhere to their moral guidance;
• peer pressure – children may succumb to peer pressure in order to fit in
  with a peer group;
• ostracism – children who don’t conform to the values of peer groups
  may sanction through ostracism and made to feel like outsiders;
• role modelling – children are faced with role models, who’s attributes they
  may wish to have, in various agencies of secondary socialisation such as
  schools or the media;
• copying/imitation – the media is a large part of children’s life and being
  impressionable they are likely to copy behaviours they see e.g. Bandura
  Bobo doll experiment;

Question 72

Explain why modern industrial societies are child-centred. [8]

Answer 72

• because parents now spend more time with their children e.g. there is a
  rise in the number of children that are home schooled;
• because parents spend more money on their children, this can be seen
  through the rise of advertising aimed specifically at children who can use
  ‘pester-power’;
• because the decline in birth rate has led to smaller families with parents
  investing more time and money in fewer children;
• because many societies prioritise children, offering free education,
  healthcare and dentistry, amongst other things;
• because expectations about childhood have changed, parents now see
  childhood as a special time in terms of love, socialisation and protection;
• because consumption patterns have changed with many consumables
  having child specific products e.g. children’s food;
• because there has been a proliferation of child protection policies, very
  few institutions today don’t have a child protection policy;
• because, increasingly, social welfare policies have a key focus on
  children, many welfare benefits are contingent upon the number of
  children in a family e.g. child benefit;
• because we now have internationally binding agreements such as The
  United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) which
  offers 40 separate rights for children;

There were some
interesting points raised, such as the functionalist view that children are needed for the future
economy and much time and effort is spent on socialisation, the fact that with decreasing birth
rates children become more precious and thus attract more investment in terms of parental time
and money plus the idea that due to an increasing awareness of the dangers faced by children are
now better protected by both parents and the law.

Question 73

To what extent has globalisation created a global culture? [15]

Answer 73

Arguments for:
* Hollywood films are seen all over the world and often express Western
values;
* social media and the internet have made it easier for people all round the
world to come together and share ideas;
* fashion – market leading brands such as Nike and Adidas are worn and
advertised in all parts of the world;
* food – transnational corporations like McDonalds are able to offer similar
food in outlets across the globe;
* English is the dominant language particularly on the internet;
* sports that originated in Europe are now dominant across the globe and
played by all cultures e.g. football;
* transnational companies exist across the globe – these are vast
employers that are able to shape the values of workers;
* capitalism and western liberal democracy is seen as the only successful
way to run a country, developing countries must follow this model to
secure investment;- marxism
* cheap travel and tourism has helped spread dominant cultural values all
around the world;

Arguments against:
* despite Hollywood being dominant there are many national film industries
such as Bollywood or Nollywood;
* despite mass migration, the existence of multicultural societies provides a
space to maintain traditional cultural values;
* there is cultural diversity within societies and certain groups set up their
own schools and churches to maintain their cultural values e.g. the
Amish;
* some countries such as China restrict people’s access to the internet and
consequently protect their culture from outside influence;
* some countries such as France help maintain their culture by setting legal
limits on foreign media imports such as film and music;
* some indigenous tribes exist in the world with no influence from or
interaction with the ‘outside world’;
* Muslim fundamentalists and jihadists such as the Taliban in Afghanistan
and Boko Haram in Nigeria violently reject Western culture;
* hybrid cultures are developing that remain unique to particular places e.g.
McDonalds will develop menus specifically for a particular location;

Question 74

What is meant by the term ‘lifestyle’? [2]

Answer 74

the typical way of life of an individual,
group or culture
such as
clothing, diet and general consumer choices

Question 75

Describe two examples of global culture. [4]

Answer 75

• social media platforms – allow people to feel connected all around the
  globe;
• fashion – market leading brands are worn and advertised in all parts of
  the world;
• food – transnational corporations are able to offer similar food in outlets
  across the globe, similarly Indian or Chinese food is being eaten around
  the world;
• Bollywood/Hollywood – people around the world are exposed to the
  same films and recognise the same movie stars;
• UN Human Rights – we all are entitled to the same rights; for example
  gender based equal rights;

Question 76

Explain how negative sanctions are used to control individuals. [6]

Answer 76

• police arrest – this can send a signal to the members of society to abide
  by the law or face consequences;
• imprisonment – takes away the liberty of individuals who have broken
  the law and ensures they can’t cause any more harm to society;
• punishments may be used to deter deviance or control future behaviour
  by instilling fear of consequences;
• religion – fear of damnation in the next life controls individuals in the
  present;
• education – the use of exclusions and detentions can control the
  behaviour of disruptive individuals;
• workplace – the fear of being sacked and losing one’s income can
  control the behaviour of people when at work;
• family – being grounded or having a favourite toy taken away are
  sanctions that may be used to control children;
• peer group – members may ostracise individuals who don’t conform to
  the group’s norms;
• media – groups may be negatively labelled;

The best responses gave examples of sanctions used by different agents and then discussed how
these sanctions result in control or conformity. For example, a prison sentence deters others from
committing the same offence or a warning in the workplace makes people afraid of losing their job
and hence they conform to the expected norms and rules. Weaker responses described only
negative sanctions and did not engage with the ‘explain how’ aspect of the question.

Question 77

Explain why age is a social construction. [8]

Answer 77

• because Aries argued that childhood did not exist in medieval times in
  the way it does today;
• because in medieval times children weren’t treated differently from
  adults whereas nowadays children are treated differently;
• society imposes categories of age which makes people treat individuals
  differently e.g. old people may be ‘viewed’ as fragile when they are not;
• because in the past children were exposed to ideas of death and
  violence whereas today they are more likely to be protected (e.g. media
  watershed);
• because in the industrial revolution children worked in factories whereas
  in modern industrial societies they have to go to school and not work in
  dangerous jobs;
• because in different cultures childhood is experienced very differently,
  in some parts of the world a child might be a soldier or a bride but in
  modern industrial societies this wouldn’t happen;

Question 78

To what extent is secondary socialisation more influential than primary socialisation
for an individual? [15]

Answer 78

Arguments for:
* the media is omnipresent and evidence shows that people spend
increasing amounts of time consuming media and many argue it has a
direct and long-lasting effect;
* religion in many societies is extremely powerful and so is able to dictate
the norms and values that should be upheld;
* secondary socialisation equips young people for the world beyond the
family e.g. school teaches skills and knowledge needed for the
workplace;
* due to our complex and ever-changing society people have to adapt to
new roles and hence often require re-socialisation e.g. joining the army;
* education has a huge effect on individuals in many different ways and
many people in modern industrial societies spend many years in
educational institutions;
* peer groups can exert pressure on individuals which can shape their
behaviours;
* the workplace often has its own norms and values and in order to get
on at work employees must adopt the appropriate behaviours and ways
of being;
* the agencies of law and order are able to control individuals and
influence their behaviour, ensuring people follow the law and legal
behaviour patterns;

Arguments against:
* primary socialisation is where we first learn norms and values and learn
to follow rules;
* the family is a key institution in shaping our identities, particularly our
gender identities;
* without a successful primary socialisation it would be unlikely that the
institutions of secondary socialisation would be effective;
* in modern industrial society children may receive primary socialisation
in nurseries/playgroups, it might be argued that some boundaries
between primary and secondary socialisation are breaking down;
* Parsons argues one of the two essential or irreducible functions of the
family is the primary socialisation of children and its importance can’t be
understated;
* strong emotional bonds in the family makes it effective in transmitting
norms and values;
* primary socialisation is the first form of socialisation and it is where we
learn to be human;

Question 79

What is meant by the term ‘social conformity’? [2]

Answer 79

behaviour that matches that expected by
the rest of the social group

Question 80

Describe two agencies of social control. [4]

Answer 80

• police e.g. the power of arrest deters people from deviant action;
• courts/judiciary e.g. sentences such as imprisonment act as a deterrent
  to keep the majority in conformity;
• penal system e.g. being locked up and having no freedom prevents
  criminals from committing deviant acts;
• armed forces e.g. in situations such as riots the army may be brought
  onto the streets and the threat of coercion will likely prevent further
  unrest;
• family e.g. manipulation into gender roles and the use of sanctions such
  as grounding keep children in line;
• media e.g. show punishments that rule-breakers receive;
• school/education e.g. use of detentions and the setting of rules in the
  hidden curriculum;
• religion e.g. laws and rules are set out and rewards/punishments such
  as heaven and hell are given;
• work e.g. promotion in the workplace encourages people to follow the
  norms and values of the company;
• peer group e.g. ridicule from friends for deviating from expected norms;
• government e.g. set laws and punishments;

Question 81

Explain how informal agencies of social control use rewards and sanctions to ensure
conformity. [6]

Answer 81

• school e.g. detentions may deter further rule-breaking whereas praise
  from the teacher will encourage further conformity;
• family e.g. social media bans or being grounded are likely to produce
  better behaviour, as are rewards such as pocket money and praise;
• peer group e.g. being ridiculed or ostracised by friends is painful and is
  likely to bring behaviour back into line whilst praise from peers will likely
  foster conformity with group norms;
• workplace e.g. written warnings or demotion is likely to change
  someone’s behaviour as these are serious consequences and pay rises
  and awards will foster further conformity;
• religion e.g. the threat of hell or the promise of heaven will likely keep
  believers in line with official teachings;

The best responses gave examples of rewards and sanctions used by
different agents and then discussed how these sanctions result in conformity. For example, a
prison sentence deters others from committing the same offence or a promotion in the workplace
encourages people to strive even harder to fulfil their role and behave as their employers wish.

Question 82

Explain why norms and values vary widely from one country to another. [8]

Answer 82

• they are founded in different cultural traditions e.g. wearing the veil or
  burqah may differ due to cultural preferences;
• there are different religious traditions e.g. the value of modesty in
  appearance is more prominent in Islam than some other religions;
• they were developed to meet the needs of a particular society at a
  specific point in time e.g. the norms of not eating pork in Judaism may
  stem from a time when this may have been problematic in terms of
  disease;
• they were developed to meet the requirements of a particular climate
  e.g. remote tribes in hot countries may wear few, if any, clothes;
• some norms and values may have been developed by different ruling
  groups to maintain their power and status e.g. the norm of saluting the
  leader in Germany in WW2;
• access and use of media differs e.g. in China censorship of the internet
  limits global influence so norms and values remain distinct;

Question 83

What is meant by the term ‘global culture’? [2]

Answer 83

idea that as a result of globalisation there is or will be a
single culture shared by people all around the world.

Question 84

Describe two customs practised in society. [4]

Answer 84

• it’s a sign of deference to bend down and touch a respected elder’s feet
  in India
• at Christmas time in the UK people bring a pine tree into the house and
  decorate it
• body art or Aboriginal body painting is tied directly to and is a major part
  of aboriginal culture

Question 85

Explain how globalisation brings cultures closer together. [6]

Answer 85

• global communication systems – satellite and internet communications
  enables people from all round the world to communicate easily
• global mass media allows peoples from all over the world to see the film
  and music of other cultures
• global migration has seen different communities emerge in all parts of
  the world – e.g. Surrey in Canada has the largest Sikh settlement
  outside of Punjab
• global sporting events such as the Olympics bring people from all over
  the world together
• world tourism and cheaper travel enable people to visit all parts of the
  globe
• trading patterns are now global and goods and services are traded right
  across the globe
• international governing bodies such as the UN attempt to make laws
  that are applicable to all people across the world e.g. Universal
  declaration of Human Rights

Question 86

Explain why cultural diversity may be good for society. [8]

Answer 86

• diversity means recognising that everyone is different in some way, this
  also means ‘valuing’ the difference
• people from different countries and backgrounds are all living together
  so they can share and enjoy aspects of each other’s culture e.g. food or
  music
• learning to live side by side with diverse groups helps make society
  more tolerant
• bringing diverse customs and ideas together leads to new and exciting
  hybrid ideas
• diversity is a way of combatting genetic health risks associated with
  isolationist groups e.g. the Amish
• cultural diversity acknowledges there are multiple ways to solve
  problems and therefore helps people focus on common needs and
  goals
• diversity is positive for the workplace because helps create a wider pool
  of talent
• societies face many problems, having a diverse society allows for new
  and unique solutions to problems

Question 87

To what extent is the family the most important agency in shaping an individual’s gender
identity? [15]

Answer 87

Arguments for:
* family for most is the first agency of socialisation and the strength of
family bonds make this the most important agency of primary
socialisation
* parents are role models for their children and in many nuclear families
these role models are gender divided i.e. mother and father
* children learn through imitation and those households that have a
gendered division of domestic labour will help to shape gender identities
of children
* verbal appellations – according to Oakley the way parents address their
children in gender specific ways such as naughty boy or pretty girl will
help to shape gender identities of children
* different activities – e.g. girls helping their mothers to cook or boys
helping their dads in the garden will help to shape gender identities of
children according to Oakley
* canalisation refers to the way in which parents channel the child’s
interests in activities or toys in conjunction with gender as deemed
appropriate according to Oakley
* manipulation refers to the way in which parents deter of encourage
behaviour on the basis of appropriateness in regard to gender according
to Oakley

Arguments against:
* schools construct gender identity through subject choice, different
curriculums, single sex education as well as gendered educational
resources
* the media, particularly mainstream media such as Hollywood films often
reinforce conventional gender roles and stereotypes thus shaping
gender identity
* many peer groups reinforce gender roles through peer pressure and
other types of informal social control such as ostracism thus shaping
gender identity
* many religions have strict rules concerning the roles of men and women
thus shaping gender identity
* many MIS have gender divisions in the workplace (horizontal and
vertical) and these can shape gender expectations and identity

Question 88

What is meant by the term ‘sanctions’? [2]

Answer 88

ways of rewarding or punishing acceptable behaviour, usually used in
the sense of punishment (negative sanctions)

Question 89

Describe two examples of values. [4]

Answer 89

• honesty – being truthful to others at all times;
• democracy – the right of citizens to elect their leaders;
• human rights – a right which is believed to belong to every person;
• the importance of education – most MIS value education and believe all
  children should be able to get access;
• respect for the elderly – is seen as very important in some cultures;

Question 90

Explain how traditional masculinity is changing. [6]

Answer 90

• men are now more likely to show their emotions publicly than in previous
  times;
• taking care over their appearance, following fashions and using
  cosmetics occurs more frequently in today’s society e.g. metrosexual
  man;
• talking about their relationships and feelings e.g. new man is now
  considered a strength whereas before it might have been taken as a
  weakness;
• emotional attachment to children used to be the preserve of mothers only
  but nowadays fathers are developing close emotional bonds with their
  babies and infants – intimate fathering;
• traditionally men would have been breadwinners but now men are more
  likely to be stay at home fathers – househusbands;
• men particularly working class used to work in manual labour but now are
  more likely to be in working in the service sector;
• nowadays men may demonstrate hyper-masculinity as a response to the
  recently perceived crisis of masculinity;
• a diversity of masculinities are now apparent, as can be seen through
  the acceptance of homosexuality;

Question 91

Explain why some sociologists argue that childhood is a social construction. [8]

Answer 91

• the way childhood was considered in the past has changed compared to
  the present e.g. child centredness is evidence of social construction;
• the way childhood is considered differs from country to country e.g. child
  soldiers, this suggest childhood is socially constructed;
• according to Aries children used to wear the same clothes as adults but
  nowadays they don’t;
• children used to be punished by law in the same way an adult was but
  now they are not e.g. age of criminal responsibility;
• in MIS children are required to go to school whereas in other societies
  they may be required to go to work and not have a formal education;
• Postman argues childhood is changing in the era of modern
  technologies and that they are no longer seen as innocent and
  protected from adult issues e.g. the sexualisation of children;
• children’s rights have changed hugely over time e.g. employment laws;

Question 92

To what extent does functionalism offer the best explanation of why individuals join
youth sub-cultures? [15]

Answer 92

Arguments for:
* functionalists argue joining a youth sub-culture can be explained as a
way of managing the transition from childhood to adulthood;
* functionalists argue youth sub-culture helps detach the individual from
their family so they can achieve their own status as an adult developing
autonomy and independence;
* functionalists argue youth sub-cultures act as a ‘safety valve’ and people
join to help them manage going through adolescence;
* functionalists claim that youth sub-cultures offer members an alternative
opportunity structure where they can gain status and respect;
* functionalists argue that young people join sub-cultures to gain status,
moving from an ascribed status to an achieved status;
* functionalists argue that youth sub-cultures are a way of dealing with
stress caused by the transition from childhood to adulthood;
* joining a youth sub-culture can be a way of gaining success and status
for those young people who find other routes to success (such as
education) blocked;
* functionalists argue (Eisenstadt) that young people need to find a way to
distinguish themselves from their parents and youth sub-cultures are a
vehicle for this;

Arguments against:
* Marxists argue that youth sub-cultures are a form of resistance against
capitalism e.g. skinheads;
* Marxists argue working class youth sub-cultures are formed as other routes
to resistance are blocked for such groups who lack power and status;
* Marxists argue (P Cohen) the skinhead sub-culture formed as a reaction
to the decline of manufacturing and as a means of protecting working-class
identity;
* other Marxists (Brake) argue working class youth sub-cultures are ‘magical’
they provide each new generation with a chance to prove they are unique;
* teddy boys took their style from the upper class Edwardians to show their
new affluence;
* Marxists see working-class youth sub-cultures as linked to the decline of
working-class inner-city communities;
* postmodernists argue youth sub-cultures no longer have a clear purpose,
young people join for thrills and leave, sub-cultures are transient;
* feminists such as McRobbie argued girls created a bedroom sub-culture
to create a space away not just away from adults but also from boys;
* labelling theory suggests that pupil subcultures are a response to in-school
processes such as teacher labelling;
* Paul Willis argued counter school sub-cultures were formed because
the lads saw school and academic learning as pointless to their future
lives as factory workers;
* ethnicity and anti-school sub-cultures Sewell claimed that Black
Caribbean boys may experience pressure by their peers to adopt the
norms of an ‘urban’ or ‘street’ sub-culture;

Question 93

What is meant by the term ‘social conformity’? [2]

Answer 93

Acting in accordance with norms and
social expectations.

Question 94

Describe two examples of coercion in society. [4]

Answer 94

• parental sanctions – parents may coerce children by physically
  restraining or punishment;
• law enforcement – have powers of arrest and detention;
• by peers – through peer pressure individuals may feel compelled to act
  against their will;
• bullying – this intimidation can happen at school, via social media or in
  the workplace;
• robbery – through criminal behaviour with aggravated violence or threat;
• domestic violence – can be used to control partners against their will;
• religion – in some religious societies there may be a threat of physical
  harm as a sanction against deviant behaviour e.g. honour killings;
• the military – they have the power and authority to inflict physical harm
  on individuals to make them behave;

Question 95

Explain how children learn gender roles during primary socialisation. [6]

Answer 95

• role models – parents act as gendered role models, exemplifying
  gender appropriate behaviour;
• imitation – children learn by copying parents, typically boys copy their
  fathers and girls their mothers;
• verbal appellation – using different words and phrases with different
  sexes, e.g. “good girl” and “brave boy”;
• different activities – promoting different activities deemed socially
  suitable for boys or girls, this may happen at home or in nursery school;
• manipulation – stressing the importance of appearance in girls e.g.
  brushing their hair;
• canalisation (Oakley) – the channelling of attention onto different things,
  depending upon the sex of the child e.g. girls helping their mother or
  boys being encouraged to play football with their father;
• media stereotypes – increasingly young children have access to media
  at home and can be influenced by representations of gender
  stereotypes;