culture bias Flashcards
what is culture bias
Cultural bias is the tendency to judge people based on one’s own cultural
assumptions. If a particular behaviour is evaluated solely from the perspective
of one culture, then cultural differences in behaviour may be perceived as
abnormal or even inferior.
what is ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging other cultures according to the norms,
standards, or values of one’s own culture. In extreme cases, it involves believing
in the superiority of one’s own culture.
what can ethnocentrism lead to
Ethnocentrism can lead to prejudice and discrimination against other ethnic
groups by emphasising apparent differences while ignoring individual variation within those groups.
what has ethnocentrism contributed to in psychology
In psychology, ethnocentrism has contributed to the dominance of a ‘Western norm,’ which can devalue other cultures. Findings from ethnocentric research should not be generalised to other cultures, as studying only one culture makes such generalisations invalid.
what is cultural relativism
Psychologists are encouraged to adopt a culturally relativistic approach.
Cultural relativism is the idea that behaviour can only be fully understood
within the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it
occurs.
strengths of culture bias
+ Historically, psychologists have distinguished between individualistic cultures and collectivist cultures. However, critics argue that this distinction is overly
simplistic and inaccurate. Tokano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15
studies comparing the US and Japan showed no evidence of the traditional
individualist–collectivist divide.
+ Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995) found that African-Caribbean immigrants in
the UK were seven times more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness than
the general population. This has raised concerns about the validity of diagnostic
tools such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) when used for individuals from cultures different from those in which these tools were developed.
+ Some mental illnesses exist in certain cultures but not in others. For example,
in West Africa, the term brain fag describes difficulty concentrating and thinking, while in China, a man who believes his penis is retracting into his body may be diagnosed with koro.
weaknesses of cultural bias
- There is evidence that some human behaviours are universal. For example, the
basic facial expressions associated with emotions such as happiness and disgust
are consistent across all cultures and even in some non-human animals (Ekman,
1989).
what can researchers do to minimise cultural bias
To minimise cultural bias, researchers should:
Avoid extrapolating findings or theories to cultures not represented in
their research samples.
Ensure studies are conducted by researchers familiar with the culture
being investigated.
Conduct cross-cultural research rather than focusing on a single culture.
Avoid assuming universal norms or standards when designing studies and
reporting findings.
Study individual cultures in depth to understand them within their own
context.
Continuously reflect on their own cultural biases when carrying out
research.
give examples of studies that show cultural bias
Asch’s Conformity Study - Asch’s original study was conducted in the United States, and its results were assumed to reflect a universal human tendency to conform. However, critics argue that individualistic cultures, like the US, place more emphasis on independence, leading to different conformity rates than in collectivist cultures, where group harmony is prioritized. Subsequent replications in different cultures (e.g., Japan) have shown that conformity levels can vary significantly, challenging the generalizability of Asch’s findings.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation - Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is a well-known method for assessing attachment types in infants. Ainsworth’s research was conducted in the United States, and it is based on a specific attachment model rooted in Western ideals of parenting. She classified attachment into three types: secure, avoidant, and ambivalent. However, her classification was criticized for being culturally biased. For example, some cultures, such as those in Japan, have different parenting practices that might lead to different attachment behaviors. In Japan, children may become more distressed during separations due to the close-knit, interdependent relationships that are valued, potentially leading to a misinterpretation of attachment behaviors as insecure.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages - Freud’s theory of psychosexual development was based on Western, middle-class patients and emphasized ideas like the Oedipus complex. However, Malinowski (1929) found that in the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea, boys were disciplined by their maternal uncles rather than their fathers, contradicting Freud’s assumptions.
Rosenhan Being Sane in Insane Places - Rosenhan’s study on psychiatric diagnoses was conducted in the U.S., where concepts of mental illness were based on Western definitions. In other cultures, symptoms like hearing voices may be interpreted differently (e.g., as spiritual experiences rather than signs of schizophrenia), showing cultural bias in psychiatric diagnosis.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Eyewitness Testimony- Research on eyewitness testimony and leading questions was conducted in Western societies. However, studies in other cultures (e.g., Wang et al., 2007) suggest that memory recall is influenced by cultural factors such as collectivism vs. individualism, meaning EWT findings may not apply globally.
Jahoda Ideal Mental Health Criteria - Jahoda defined “ideal mental health” using Western values like autonomy and self-actualization. However, in collectivist cultures, interdependence is valued more than independence, making these criteria culturally biased.
studies that show ethnocentrism
Ainsworth The Strange Situation - Ainsworth’s attachment classification (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant) was based on American middle-class norms. When applied to other cultures (e.g., Japan and Germany), it labeled children as insecure even though their attachment behaviors were normal within their cultures.
Jahoda Ideal Mental Health - jahoda outlined six criteria for ideal mental health, such as autonomy and self-actualization, which reflect Western individualism. In collectivist cultures, interdependence is valued more, making the criteria ethnocentric.
Freud Psychosexual Development- Freud’s theories were based on Western, middle-class patients and assumed that experiences like the Oedipus complex were universal. However, Malinowski (1929) found that Trobriand Island boys did not experience an Oedipus complex, showing Freud’s ethnocentric bias.
Loftus and Palmer Eyewitness Testimony - Research on memory and eyewitness testimony was conducted in Western cultures. However, studies in non-Western cultures (e.g., Wang et al., 2007) found that collectivist cultures recall memories differently, showing that Western assumptions about memory may not apply globally.
Milgram Obedience Study - Milgram’s study on obedience was conducted in the U.S., where individual responsibility is emphasized. When replicated in collectivist cultures (e.g., Mantell, 1971 in Germany; Kilham & Mann, 1974 in Australia), different levels of obedience were found, suggesting the original study was ethnocentric in assuming obedience levels were universal.
Schizophrenia Diagnosis - DSM & ICD - Western diagnostic manuals (DSM and ICD) define schizophrenia based on symptoms common in Western patients. However, in some African and Caribbean cultures, experiences like hearing voices may be seen as spiritual rather than pathological. This has led to higher misdiagnosis rates among ethnic minorities in Western countries.
