Culture and Values Flashcards
define attitudes
attitudes are long-lasting evaluations we hold about ourselves, other people, objects and issues
- attitudes have direction as they can be positive, negative or neutral
- attitudes also vary in intensity, e.g. we may feel very strongly about one issue and less so about another
how do attitudes develop
attitudes develop through our direct experience, as well as through our interactions with others, such as parents and friends
what are psychologists trying to learn about attitudes
what attitudes are, how they are formed and the circumstances in which they change
what is The Tripartite Model of Attitudes
The Tripartite Model of Attitudes is a theory on the structure of attitudes, which proposes that an attitude is made up of three components – affective, cognitive and behavioural.
describe the ‘affective’ component
refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group or issue
- it is based on judgement which results in either a positive, negative or neutral response
e. g.
- “I enjoy being with my friends” - positive
- “I hate spiders” - negative
- “I’m not interested in politics” - neutral
describe the ‘cognitive’ component
refers to the belief we have about an object, person, group or issue
- our beliefs develop as a result of our experiences
- some beliefs are based on facts, while others may be false
- some beliefs can be verified, while others can’t be proven
describe the behavioural component
refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions
- whether the attitude is positive or negative will also influence whether our action is positive or negative
e. g. not liking someone because of prejudice against them and so being mean to them
what did (Aranson, 2008) say
“These are sometimes referred to as the ABCs of attitudes”
- in regard to the Tripartite Model of Attitudes
give an example of the components being consistent
I am scared of spiders - affective
so I avoid them - behavioural
because I think they are dangerous - cognitive
give an example of the components being inconsistent
I am scared of going to the dentist - affective
so I avoid going - behavioural
even though I know it’s important to go - cognitive
- because a person’s behaviour doesn’t always reflect their attitude, some psychologists believe there are only 2 components of attitudes
what are the 2 main approaches to measuring attitudes
1 - observing people’s behaviour to uncover underlying attitudes associated with the observed behaviour
2 - asking participants about their attitudes, which can be done through interviews, questionnaires and rating scales
- each assessment technique has limitations and advantages
- some attitudes may be better suited to one approach than others
- the attitude assessment technique also determines the type of data to be collected - either qualitative or quantitative
describe the observational method to measure attitudes
the observational method is an indirect approach to measuring attitudes as it involves watching what someone does, then interfering or assuming the underlying attitudes which may be associated with the observed behaviour
what did (Wales & Brewer) learn through the observational method
in a study of graffiti in male and female toilets, researchers found that females produce more graffiti and that their graffiti has more romantic content than the male’s graffiti
- the researchers may not have collected this data through other methods because the participants would of been aware that they were being observed
describe the ‘Lost Letter Technique” by Milgram (1969)
the study was done to obtain information about people’s attitudes towards political organisations
Milgram prepared 400 letters which were all addressed to the same post office
- 100 were addressed to “Friends of the Nazis Party”
- 100 were addressed to “Friends of the Communist Party”
- 100 were addressed to “Mr. Walter Carnap”
- 100 were addressed to “Medical Research Associates
The letters were left on the streets of New Haven, America, where people passing by could easily see them, e.g. footpath, telephone booth
Milgram went to the post office on a daily basis and observed which letters were posted after they were found
This way, Milgram was able to learn about the attitudes of New Haven citizens without the participants knowing they were being studied
what were the results of the ‘Lost Letter Technique’ by Milgram
Friends of the Nazi Party - 25% were posted
Friends of the Communist Party - 25% were posted
Medical Research Party - 72% were posted
what did (Westen, Burton & Kowalski - 2006, Aronson - 2008) say about inconsistency
“A person’s attitudes and behaviour are not always consistent and sometimes a person’s attitude and observable behaviour will be unrelated or only slightly related”
what is the limitation of the Tripartite Model of Attitudes
because of the findings of inconsistency, some psychologists don’t support the tri-component model of attitudes, instead believing the Tripartite Model of Attitudes only consists of the affective and cognitive components.
However, most psychologists still support the tri-component model, but accept that it is unrealistic to expect attitudes and behaviour to always correspond perfectly, as behaviour is rarely a product of a single-influence
what are qualitative self-report methods
Qualitative self-report methods are the participant’s written or spoken responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher.
- In most cases, one person’s self-report is compared with other people who answered the same questions
If the individual answers honestly, then the data obtained from the self-reports can provide valuable information about attitudes.
what are the disadvantages of qualitative self-report methods
- The data can’t be analysed statistically as numbers aren’t involved
- It is often time consuming and it is up to the researcher to decide what major points need to be made
what are the 3 qualitative self-report methods
1 - surveys
2 - questionnaires
3 - interviews
what is a survey
A method of measuring attitudes that requires the participant to answer questions – e.g. through written answers / statements / instructions, or as detailed and intensive as interviews.
- The researcher gives a pre-prepared set of questions to each participant face-to-face, over the phone, by post or on the internet. The questions may be oral or in writing.
Psychologists survey a sample of people, which must be representative of the entire population to ensure the results are reliable.
what are questionnaires
A structured set of written questions designed to draw out self-report info from people on a topic of interest.
- Participants answer in writing, at their own pace and without supervision
what are the advantages of using questionnaires
- Used when responses are required from a large number of people
- They are efficient as the researcher can give a questionnaire to the participant via the internet, mail etc.
- They guarantee anonymity which makes sensitive information easy to disclose, e.g. information about illegal, addictive or sexual behaviour
what are interviews
a qualitative method that involves questions that are asked by the researcher with the aim of obtaining self-report information on a topic of research interest.
- Usually conducted face-to-face or by phone
- Rarely used with large samples to collect data because it is time consuming
- Can be structured, unstructured or semi-structured, unlike questionnaires which are usually structured
- Involves free-response or open-ended questions
what are free-response or open-ended questions
a method of question-asking that requires respondents to describe their attitudes ‘freely’ in their own words, therefore providing qualitative data.
- The participants are not restricted to giving answers that fit into predetermined categories
- Allows the researcher to ask follow-up questions
what is the limitation of using qualitative methods
The participant’s answers are difficult to summarise or score, therefore difficult to convert into quantitative data.
- This makes it difficult to analyse statistically
what are the 2 quantitative self-report methods
1 - fixed response or closed questions
2 - rating scales
what are fixed response or closed questions
When the researcher provides the participant with a number of ‘fixed’ alternative answers.
o Do you support the use of health warnings on cigarette packages?
Through this, the researcher can accurately and concisely summarise data in the form of quantitative data.
what are rating scales
When the researcher provides a series of fixed-response questions about different aspects of an attitude, and the participant indicates the extent of their agreement or disagreement.
- Accurately measure the direction and strength of an attitude, therefore providing very specific quantitative data
The most common form of rating scales is likert scales.
what are likert scales
A scale that focusses on measuring the direction of an attitude.
- Usually consists of around 20 questions which respondents must either disagree or agree on a five-point-scale
- Each of the responses have a numerical value, e.g. 1 – 5, and the respondent’s attitude is defined as the sum total
what is prejudice
When a person holds a negative attitude towards a member of a group based solely on their membership with that group.
- Prejudices are usually based on visible differences between people over which we have no control, e.g. race, age, gender
what is racism
Racism is a form of prejudice based on the assumed racial differences.
People in one racial group think that their values, social norms and behaviours are superior to those in another group.
o Stereotypes of the Aboriginal people as being drunk, lazy and dirty (Walker, 1994)
what did the (Australian Psychological Society, 1997) find
In 1995, a study of more than 2000 international university students showed that 73% of them had had a bad experience of discrimination while studying in Australia, some in the form of verbal abuse and others as physical (Australian Psychological Society, 1997).
what is discrimination
The positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members.
o This can include things like ignoring behaviour, excluding behaviour, bullying etc. An extreme example is genocide, which is the extermination of an entire group as seen in Hitler’s attempt to kill the Jewish people in WW2
what are the 3 components of prejudice
- stereotypes
- negative feelings
- discriminatory behaviour
describe the stereotype component
stereotypes are a form of social categorisation based on what others presume to be shared features
E.g. oversimplified beliefs, such as thinking all Italians talk loudly and with their hands
Stereotypical thinking puts people into boxes and makes people think that the characteristics of some members apply to all the members in that group.
describe the negative feelings component
negative feelings includes feelings of dislike and hostility.
- If negative feelings are accompanied by discrimination, the prejudiced person way be fearful of being attacked
describe the discriminatory behaviour component
The tendency to act in a discriminatory way.
o Ignoring behaviour, excluding behaviour, bullying behaviour etc.
