Culture and Values

Question 1

define attitudes

Answer 1

attitudes are long-lasting evaluations we hold about ourselves, other people, objects and issues

• attitudes have direction as they can be positive, negative or neutral
• attitudes also vary in intensity, e.g. we may feel very strongly about one issue and less so about another

Question 2

how do attitudes develop

Answer 2

attitudes develop through our direct experience, as well as through our interactions with others, such as parents and friends

Question 3

what are psychologists trying to learn about attitudes

Answer 3

what attitudes are, how they are formed and the circumstances in which they change

Question 4

what is The Tripartite Model of Attitudes

Answer 4

The Tripartite Model of Attitudes is a theory on the structure of attitudes, which proposes that an attitude is made up of three components – affective, cognitive and behavioural.

Question 5

describe the ‘affective’ component

Answer 5

refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group or issue

• it is based on judgement which results in either a positive, negative or neutral response

e. g.
- “I enjoy being with my friends” - positive
- “I hate spiders” - negative
- “I’m not interested in politics” - neutral

Question 6

describe the ‘cognitive’ component

Answer 6

refers to the belief we have about an object, person, group or issue

• our beliefs develop as a result of our experiences
• some beliefs are based on facts, while others may be false
• some beliefs can be verified, while others can’t be proven

Question 7

describe the behavioural component

Answer 7

refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions

• whether the attitude is positive or negative will also influence whether our action is positive or negative
  e. g. not liking someone because of prejudice against them and so being mean to them

Question 8

what did (Aranson, 2008) say

Answer 8

“These are sometimes referred to as the ABCs of attitudes”

• in regard to the Tripartite Model of Attitudes

Question 9

give an example of the components being consistent

Answer 9

I am scared of spiders - affective
so I avoid them - behavioural
because I think they are dangerous - cognitive

Question 10

give an example of the components being inconsistent

Answer 10

I am scared of going to the dentist - affective
so I avoid going - behavioural
even though I know it’s important to go - cognitive

• because a person’s behaviour doesn’t always reflect their attitude, some psychologists believe there are only 2 components of attitudes

Question 11

what are the 2 main approaches to measuring attitudes

Answer 11

1 - observing people’s behaviour to uncover underlying attitudes associated with the observed behaviour

2 - asking participants about their attitudes, which can be done through interviews, questionnaires and rating scales

• each assessment technique has limitations and advantages
• some attitudes may be better suited to one approach than others
• the attitude assessment technique also determines the type of data to be collected - either qualitative or quantitative

Question 12

describe the observational method to measure attitudes

Answer 12

the observational method is an indirect approach to measuring attitudes as it involves watching what someone does, then interfering or assuming the underlying attitudes which may be associated with the observed behaviour

Question 13

what did (Wales & Brewer) learn through the observational method

Answer 13

in a study of graffiti in male and female toilets, researchers found that females produce more graffiti and that their graffiti has more romantic content than the male’s graffiti

• the researchers may not have collected this data through other methods because the participants would of been aware that they were being observed

Question 14

describe the ‘Lost Letter Technique” by Milgram (1969)

Answer 14

the study was done to obtain information about people’s attitudes towards political organisations

Milgram prepared 400 letters which were all addressed to the same post office

• 100 were addressed to “Friends of the Nazis Party”
• 100 were addressed to “Friends of the Communist Party”
• 100 were addressed to “Mr. Walter Carnap”
• 100 were addressed to “Medical Research Associates

The letters were left on the streets of New Haven, America, where people passing by could easily see them, e.g. footpath, telephone booth

Milgram went to the post office on a daily basis and observed which letters were posted after they were found

This way, Milgram was able to learn about the attitudes of New Haven citizens without the participants knowing they were being studied

Question 15

what were the results of the ‘Lost Letter Technique’ by Milgram

Answer 15

Friends of the Nazi Party - 25% were posted

Friends of the Communist Party - 25% were posted

Medical Research Party - 72% were posted

Question 16

what did (Westen, Burton & Kowalski - 2006, Aronson - 2008) say about inconsistency

Answer 16

“A person’s attitudes and behaviour are not always consistent and sometimes a person’s attitude and observable behaviour will be unrelated or only slightly related”

Question 17

what is the limitation of the Tripartite Model of Attitudes

Answer 17

because of the findings of inconsistency, some psychologists don’t support the tri-component model of attitudes, instead believing the Tripartite Model of Attitudes only consists of the affective and cognitive components.

However, most psychologists still support the tri-component model, but accept that it is unrealistic to expect attitudes and behaviour to always correspond perfectly, as behaviour is rarely a product of a single-influence

Question 18

what are qualitative self-report methods

Answer 18

Qualitative self-report methods are the participant’s written or spoken responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher.

• In most cases, one person’s self-report is compared with other people who answered the same questions

If the individual answers honestly, then the data obtained from the self-reports can provide valuable information about attitudes.

Question 19

what are the disadvantages of qualitative self-report methods

Answer 19

• The data can’t be analysed statistically as numbers aren’t involved
• It is often time consuming and it is up to the researcher to decide what major points need to be made

Question 20

what are the 3 qualitative self-report methods

Answer 20

1 - surveys

2 - questionnaires

3 - interviews

Question 21

what is a survey

Answer 21

A method of measuring attitudes that requires the participant to answer questions – e.g. through written answers / statements / instructions, or as detailed and intensive as interviews.

• The researcher gives a pre-prepared set of questions to each participant face-to-face, over the phone, by post or on the internet. The questions may be oral or in writing.

Psychologists survey a sample of people, which must be representative of the entire population to ensure the results are reliable.

Question 22

what are questionnaires

Answer 22

A structured set of written questions designed to draw out self-report info from people on a topic of interest.

• Participants answer in writing, at their own pace and without supervision

Question 23

what are the advantages of using questionnaires

Answer 23

• Used when responses are required from a large number of people
• They are efficient as the researcher can give a questionnaire to the participant via the internet, mail etc.
• They guarantee anonymity which makes sensitive information easy to disclose, e.g. information about illegal, addictive or sexual behaviour

Question 24

what are interviews

Answer 24

a qualitative method that involves questions that are asked by the researcher with the aim of obtaining self-report information on a topic of research interest.

• Usually conducted face-to-face or by phone
• Rarely used with large samples to collect data because it is time consuming
• Can be structured, unstructured or semi-structured, unlike questionnaires which are usually structured
• Involves free-response or open-ended questions

Question 25

what are free-response or open-ended questions

Answer 25

a method of question-asking that requires respondents to describe their attitudes ‘freely’ in their own words, therefore providing qualitative data.
- The participants are not restricted to giving answers that fit into predetermined categories

• Allows the researcher to ask follow-up questions

Question 26

what is the limitation of using qualitative methods

Answer 26

The participant’s answers are difficult to summarise or score, therefore difficult to convert into quantitative data.

• This makes it difficult to analyse statistically

Question 27

what are the 2 quantitative self-report methods

Answer 27

1 - fixed response or closed questions

2 - rating scales

Question 28

what are fixed response or closed questions

Answer 28

When the researcher provides the participant with a number of ‘fixed’ alternative answers.

o Do you support the use of health warnings on cigarette packages?

Through this, the researcher can accurately and concisely summarise data in the form of quantitative data.

Question 29

what are rating scales

Answer 29

When the researcher provides a series of fixed-response questions about different aspects of an attitude, and the participant indicates the extent of their agreement or disagreement.

• Accurately measure the direction and strength of an attitude, therefore providing very specific quantitative data

The most common form of rating scales is likert scales.

Question 30

what are likert scales

Answer 30

A scale that focusses on measuring the direction of an attitude.

• Usually consists of around 20 questions which respondents must either disagree or agree on a five-point-scale
• Each of the responses have a numerical value, e.g. 1 – 5, and the respondent’s attitude is defined as the sum total

Question 31

what is prejudice

Answer 31

When a person holds a negative attitude towards a member of a group based solely on their membership with that group.

• Prejudices are usually based on visible differences between people over which we have no control, e.g. race, age, gender

Question 32

what is racism

Answer 32

Racism is a form of prejudice based on the assumed racial differences.

People in one racial group think that their values, social norms and behaviours are superior to those in another group.

o Stereotypes of the Aboriginal people as being drunk, lazy and dirty (Walker, 1994)

Question 33

what did the (Australian Psychological Society, 1997) find

Answer 33

In 1995, a study of more than 2000 international university students showed that 73% of them had had a bad experience of discrimination while studying in Australia, some in the form of verbal abuse and others as physical (Australian Psychological Society, 1997).

Question 34

what is discrimination

Answer 34

The positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members.

o This can include things like ignoring behaviour, excluding behaviour, bullying etc. An extreme example is genocide, which is the extermination of an entire group as seen in Hitler’s attempt to kill the Jewish people in WW2

Question 35

what are the 3 components of prejudice

Answer 35

1. stereotypes
2. negative feelings
3. discriminatory behaviour

Question 36

describe the stereotype component

Answer 36

stereotypes are a form of social categorisation based on what others presume to be shared features

E.g. oversimplified beliefs, such as thinking all Italians talk loudly and with their hands

Stereotypical thinking puts people into boxes and makes people think that the characteristics of some members apply to all the members in that group.

Question 37

describe the negative feelings component

Answer 37

negative feelings includes feelings of dislike and hostility.

• If negative feelings are accompanied by discrimination, the prejudiced person way be fearful of being attacked

Question 38

describe the discriminatory behaviour component

Answer 38

The tendency to act in a discriminatory way.

o Ignoring behaviour, excluding behaviour, bullying behaviour etc.