Culture and Society Flashcards
Who is behind the linguistic relativity theory?
Edward Sapir and Bejamin Lee Whorf
What does the semiotic tradition say about the relation between language and reality?
The relation between language and reality is never objective, and thereby language shapes reality!
Why is the use of language interesting when studying culture?
Because the use of language is one of key differences between cultures.
What does Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity state?
It states that the structure of a culture’s language determines the behavior and thinking of that culture; the way we see the world are shaped by the grammatical structure of the language.
How is the linguistic relativity theory different from the social constructionist theories?
In social construction, people create their realties by interaction, whereas linguistic relativity theory believes that reality is already embedded in the language and therefore comes performed.
Who is behind the theory of elaborated and restricted codes?
Basil Bernstein
Briefly explain the idea behind the restricted and elaborated codes
- The structure of the language employed in everyday talk reflects and shapes the assumption of a social group.
- Class system creates different types of language and is maintained by language.
- Role and language go hand in hand; people learn their place in the world by virtue of the language codes they employ.
What is elaborated codes?
- Elaborated codes provide a wide range of different ways to say something
- Allows speaker to make their ideas and intentions explicit.
- More complex; Requires more planning when communicating.
What is restricted codes?
- Restricted codes have a narrower range of options
- Easier to predict what form they will take
- Does not allow speaker to elaborate very much on what they mean.
When are the two types of codes appropriate in relation to types of groups?
Restricted codes: Appropiate in groups in which there is a strongly shared set of assumptions and little need to elaborate on what is meant. Speakers value group identification above individuality.
Elaborated codes: Appropriate in groups in which perspectives is not shared. Speakers value individuality above group identification.
What is the primary differences between the types of groups that use restricted and elaborated codes?
Their degree of openness
Explain the difference between a closed-role and an open-role system?
Closed-role system: One that reduces the number of alternatives for the participants; Roles are set and the group members are defined on the basis of their role.
Open-role system: One that expand the number of alternatives for individuals in the group; Roles are not categorial and simple, rather they are individualized, negotiated and constantly changing.
What is meant by a code?
A set of organizing principles behind the language employed by members of a social group.
Two major factors contribute to either the development of a restricted or elaborated code; briefly explain this relation
1) The structure of the socializing agencies within a system (family, peers, school/work):
- If it’s well defined: Restricted code
- less well defined: Elaborated code
2) Values:
- Narrower societies that tend to value collectivism: Restricted code
- Pluralistic societies that tend to value individuality: Elaborated code
Bernstein says that codes strongly are associated with social class. How would you employ this to a middle-class family and a working-class family?
Middle-class: Use of both codes - E.g. restricted codes at work, but more open-role system at home using elaborated codes.
Working class: Less likely to use elaborated codes; both the values and role system reinforce restricted codes.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of elaborated codes
Advantages: Enable speakers to adapt to an wide range of audiences and appeal to widely different types of people.
Disadvantages: Separate feeling from thought, self from other and personal belief from social obligation.
Two types families correspond to the two types of codes. Briefly explain
1) Postion families: Clear and formally determined role structure; Closed communication system using restricted codes.
2) Person-centered families: Determines roles on the basis of individuals personal orientations rather than formally defined divisions; Open communication system using elaborated codes.
Explain the difference between positional appeals and personal appeals - use examples!
Positional appeals: Based on role-related norms, e.g. “boys don’t play with dolls”
Personal appeals: Based on individualized characteristics and rules; Giving reasons for why a person should do or not do something, e.g. “It’s your turn to pick up the children, I did it yesterday”.
Who is behind the ethnography of communication theory?
Dell Hymes
Mention at least three main focuses that ethnographers of communication look at.
1) The forms of communication used by a group
2) The meanings these communication practices have for the group.
3) When and where the group members use their practices.
4) How communication practices create a sense of community
5) The variety of codes used by a group.
According to Hymes, cultures communicate in different ways, but all forms of communication has common requirements. What are these requirements?
All forms of communication requires:
- A shared code
- Communicators who know and use the code
- A channel
- A setting
- A message form
- A topic
- An event created by the transmission of the message
What is a speech community?
A group that uses a common code
Are speech communities similar to each other?
No, they are richly different which make generalization difficult.
Mention the nine categories for comparative ethnography
1) Way of speaking - patterns of communication familiar to the members of the group.
2) Ideal of the fluent speaker - What constitutes an exemplary communicator.
3) Speech community - The group itself and its boundaries
4) Speech situation - Those times when communication is considered appropriate in the community.
5) Speech event - What episodes are considered to be communication for the members of the group.
6) Speech act - Specific set of behaviors taken as an instance of communication within a speech event.
7) Components of speech acts - guidelines by which communicative behavior is judged.
8) Function of speech - what communication is believed to accomplish.
Who is Gerry Phillipsen?
A leader in the ethnography of communication.
How does Phillipsen define a speech code?
A distinctive set of understandings within a culture about what counts as communication, the significance of communication forms within the culture, and how those forms are to be understood and performed.
Mention at least three claims that Phillipsen makes about speech codes
1) Codes are distinctive; they vary from one culture to another.
2) A speech community will have multiple speech codes.
3) Speech codes constitutes a speech community’s own sense of how to be a person, how to connect with others, and how to act/communicate within the social group.
4) The code guides what the communicator actually experience when they interact with others.
5) Speech codes are embedded in daily speech.
6) Speech codes are powerful; They form the basis on which the culture will evaluate and conduct its communication.
Who suggests that ethnography addresses at least three types of problems?
Donald Carbaugh
What are the the types of problems addressed by ethnography?
The first problem is to discover the type of shared identity created by communication in the cultural community.
The second problem is to uncover the shared meanings of public performances seen in the group.
The third problem is how ethnography helps explore contradictions/paradoxes of the group; how are these handled through communication? (e.g. roles >
What does the following questions uncover?
- Questions of norms
- Questions of forms
- Questions cultural codes
Question of norms: The ways communication is used to establish a set of standards and the ways notion of right and wrong affect communication patterns.
Question of forms: Looks at the types of communication used within the society.
Question of cultural codes: Meanings of the symbols and behaviors used as communication in the cultural society.
Does ethnography only give us information about the aspects of group life?
No, it can also reveal how individuals see themselves as persons.
Who is best known for pointing out that culture is performed?
Victor Turner.
What does Turner compare everyday cultural life with?
He compares it with the theatre; Like actors, we say our lines as we perform with our bodies.
