Cultural Variation

Question 1

van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg: Procedure

Answer 1

1. Located 32 studies of attachment where the SS had been used to investigate the proportions of infants with different attachment types.
2. These 32 studies were conducted in 8 countries; 15 of these were in the US.
3. The 32 studies yielded results for 1990 children.
4. The data for these 32 studies were meta-analysed, results being combined and weighted for sample size.

Question 2

van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg: Findings

Answer 2

1. In all countries secure attachment was the most common classification.
2. The proportion ranged from 75% in Britain to 50% in China.
3. Insecure-resistant was the overall the least common type although the proportions ranged from 3% in Britain to 30% in Israel.
4. Insecure avoidant was most commonly observed in Germany and least commonly in Japan.
5. Variation within countries were 150% greater than between countries. In the USA one study found 46% securely attached and 90% in another.

Question 3

Simonella et al. : Procedure

Answer 3

1. Conducted a study in Italy to see whether the proportions of babies of different attachment types still matches those found in the SS.
2. Assessed 76 12 month olds.

Question 4

Simonella et al. : Findings

Answer 4

1. 50% were securely attached.
2. 36% were insecure avoidant.
3. Lower rate of secure attachment than has been found in many studies.
4. The researchers suggests this is because increasing numbers of mothers of very young children work long hours and use professional childcare.

Question 5

Jin et al. : Procedure

Answer 5

1. Conducted a study to compare the proportions of attachment types in Korea to other studies.
2. The SS was used to assess 87 children.

Question 6

Jin et al. : Findings

Answer 6

1. The overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in most countries, with most infants being secure.
2. Most of those classed as insecure, most were resistant and only one was avoidant.
3. The distribution is similar to the distribution of attachment types found in Japan.
4. Japan and Korea have quite similar child-rearing styles, this similarity may be explained by that.

Question 7

Conclusions:

Answer 7

1. Secure attachment seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures, supporting Bowlby’s idea that attachment is innate and universal and this type is the universal norm.
2. Research clearly shows that cultural practices have an influence on attachment type.

Question 8

E: Large Samples

Answer 8

1. A strength of combining the results of attachment studies carried out in different countries is that you can end up with a very large sample.
2. In VI and K meta-analysis there was a total of nearly 2000 babies and their primary attachment figures.
3. Even studies like those of Simonella et al. and Jin et al had large comparison groups, although their own samples were smaller.
4. This increases internal validity by reducing the impact of anomalous results caused by bad methodology or very unusual participants.

Question 9

E: Samples tend to be unrepresentative of culture

Answer 9

1. The meta-analysis by van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg claimed to study cultural variation, they comparisons were between countries not cultures.
2. Within any country there are many cultures each with different child-rearing practices.
3. An analysis by van IJzendoorn and Sagi (2001) found that distributions of attachment type in Tokyo were similar to the Western studies, whereas a more rural sample had an over-representation of insecure- resistant individuals.
4. Comparisons between countries may have little meaning; the particular cultural characteristics of the sample need to be specified.

Question 10

E: Method is biased

Answer 10

1. Cross cultural psychology includes the ideas of etic (cultural universals) and emic (cultural uniqueness).
2. The SS was designed by an American researcher based on a British Theory. There is a question over whether Anglo-American theories can be applied to other cultures.
3. Trying to apply a theory or technique designed for one culture to another culture is known as imposed etic.
4. An example, of imposed etic is the idea that a lack of separation anxiety and pleasure on reunion may indicate an insecure attachment in the SS.
5. In Germany, this behaviour might be seen more as independence than avoidance and hence not a sign of insecurity in that cultural context (Grossmann and Grossmann 1990).

Question 11

E: Alternative explanation for cultural similarity

Answer 11

1. Bowlby’s explanation for cultural similarities is that they are due to the fact that attachment is innate and universal and thus produces the same kind of behaviours all over the wold.
2. van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg proposed an alternative possibility.
3. Small cross-cultural differences may reflect the effects of mass media, in which a large number of books and television programmes that advocate similar notions of parenting are disseminated across countries