Cultural Transformations of the Modern Era Flashcards
In what part/region of the world did Christianity begin?
Began in the Middle East – specifically Palestine
Why did Christianity spread throughout the ancient world?
- Spread by the Jewish Diaspora following the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD
- Missionaries, especially the Apostle Paul spread the message to Asia Minor (Turkey) and Europe (Greece, Rome, and Spain)
- Emperor Constantine (for whom Constantinople was named) made it the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 400’s
- During the Middle Ages, the political chaos in Europe led to the Church becoming the most important social institution on the continent (the only thing they had in common)
What was the Great Schism?
Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox formally split. The division had been developing for some time
What year was the Great Schism?
1054
What was the leadership position of the Roman Catholic Church and where would they maintain influence?
Roman Catholic Church would be led by a Pope and maintain influence in Western Europe
What was the leadership position of the Eastern Orthodox Church and where would they maintain influence?
Eastern Orthodox would be led by a Patriarch and would maintain influence in the Byzantine Empire and later Russia
What four major causes led to the spread of Christianity around the world?
- Rise to Global Power of Catholic nations
- Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation
- Development of the Printing Press
- Early Colonization of the Americas
How did the rise in prominence/power of Spain and Portugal play a role in the global spread of Christianity?
- Led the way in exploring the world and making contact with non-Christian areas
- Both were ruled by devout Catholics who believed that part of their job description included spreading Christianity
- Mission-oriented religious orders, such as the Jesuits, were prominent in these countries and typically priests were on board ships of exploration/conquest
- Philippines, Central, and South America and parts of China and Japan became Christian through their efforts
Geographically, where did the Protestant Reformation begin?
Holy Roman Empire
Where did Martin Luther teach?
He was a professor at the University of Wittenberg in Saxony
What are indulgences?
“get out of purgatory” free cards that used to be given out by the Pope freely to deserving individuals, now sold for a high price
What was the name of the individual who was selling indulgences as the Pope’s representative in Germany?
Johann Tetzel
What did Martin Luther do in response to the selling of indulgences?
- Luther is angry because he sees this as direct corruption
* He posts a document called the “95 Theses” to the Wittenberg Church door on Halloween
How did the Pope react to Luther’s “Theses?”
The Pope sees these as direct defiance by a minor priest in a backwater German town, and he cannot be having that
How did the invention of Johannes Gutenberg factor into the spread of Luther’s ideas?
Printing press makes it pretty certain that almost everyone who is literate hears about the 95 Theses
What was the first book printed on the printing press using moveable type?
The first work produced was the Bible (now called the Gutenberg Bible)
What does it mean to “recant?”
• To take back, Pope Leo X sent Martin Luther an order to Martin Luther to recant his beliefs and 95 Theses
What was the Diet of Worms?
• A meeting of the leaders of the bigger states inside the Holy Roman Empire.
o Luther is commanded by Charles V to recant
o Luther gives a very famous and impassioned speech about obeying God rather than men and refuses… again
o Charles declares Martin Luther an outlaw and he goes into hiding
What was the logical reason that Frederick the Wise supported Luther?
The Church was siphoning off huge amounts of money from Saxony (and everywhere else) with the sale of indulgences and tithes. Getting out from under this financial burden would make him and his people richer
What were the emotional reasons that Frederick the Wise supported Luther?
o Luther’s fame had made Wittenberg (and Saxony by extension) the center of the European world’s attention
o Frederick sort of looked at Luther as one of his “boys”
What was the significance of Luther being declared an “outlaw?”
o An outlaw in that day had no legal protections – anyone could literally murder him with no legal consequences
o Also, anyone helping him in any way would become an outlaw
How did Luther survive becoming an outlaw?
o When it becomes clear that Luther is probably going to be executed, Frederick helps him to escape and hides him in one of his remote castles
o Charles V, because of his nature of the Holy Roman Empire’s political structure, can’t really do anything about it
What did Luther do while he was in hiding?
o Translates the Bible into German
o Writes various other works that condemn the Pope and develops his theology that would have sharp contrasts with Catholicism
What were the 3 basic ideas that Luther had that were in direct conflict with the Catholic Church?
- Sola Scriptura (Only Scripture)
- Sola Fide (Only Faith)
- Priesthood of Believers
What was Luther’s idea behind Sola Scriptura?
believed that ONLY authoritative source of knowledge about God, Jesus, and means of salvation was the Bible. Papal/Church decrees were not on par with Scripture and could be discounted
What was Luther’s idea behind Sola Fide?
he believed that the Bible taught that it was the faith of the individual that brought them to salvation. Not good works; not most of the sacraments
What 2 sacraments did Luther maintain as right and necessary?
Baptism and Communion
What was Luther’s idea behind the Priesthood of Believers?
he believed that every individual Christian interacted with God and had a relationship with Jesus/Holy Spirit. Did not need saints or priests to intervene for them
Where does the first group of Christians in western Europe who aren’t Catholics emerge?
While Luther is in exile, some of his former students and citizens of Wittenberg, take on his beliefs and begin to worship as a church that is not Catholic
What does the first group of nonchristian Catholics call themselves?
Lutherans
What violent conflict emerges from Luther’s reformation?
Provokes the Peasant War – biggest peasant rebellion in Europe to that point (around 100,000 killed before the fighting ended)
How does Luther feel about the people behind the Peasant War?
Luther was appalled and denounced the rebellion viciously
What are the 2 long term effects of the Reformation?
- Europe will divide religiously
2. Catholic Counter-Reformation develops
What book did John Calvin write?
Institutes on the Christian Religion
What was John Calvin’s unique idea?
Pre-Destination
Where did Calvin set up a theocratic government?
Geneva
Why does education become a concern for the leaders of European colonies in North America?
- Protestants believe that everyone should be able to read the Bible for themselves
- Will take up the cause of compulsory, public education for mainly this reason
Who was in line to become king of England before Henry VIII?
His older brother Arthur
Why was the marriage between Arthur Tudor and Catherine of Aragon significant?
- Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of Charles V (Luther’s old adversary – King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor
- Political alliance of major importance
What happened that ended the marriage of Arthur and Catherine?
Arthur died soon after the marriage
What did Henry VIII do to keep the alliance between England and Spain intact?
Henry steps up and marries Catherine of Aragon to keep up good relations with Spain
Why had Henry VIII been given the title “Defender of the Faith” as a young man?
Henry VIII as a young man was a devout Catholic who denounced the teachings of Martin Luther
When he became king, what quickly became Henry VIII’s “obsession?”
Henry was obsessed with ensuring he had a male heir to the throne
Why did Henry come to believe that he would not have a male heir with Catherine?
Convinced himself that this was God’s judgment on his marriage to his brother’s widow
What child did Henry and Catherine have who lived?
By 1525, Catherine of Aragon had only produced one child, a female, their daughter named Mary (had several stillborn sons)
What did he want to do to solve the problem with Catherine of Aragon?
- Henry had been involved in a series of affairs, most recently with a woman from Catherine’s court, Anne Boleyn
- Henry decides to have his marriage to Catherine annulled (declared legally invalid – basically the same as a divorce) by the Pope so he could marry Anne
Why did the Pope refuse Henry’s request to annul his marriage?
- The marriage was legal; no real basis for an annulment
- Catherine was Charles V’s aunt and the Pope did not wish to anger him while the Protestant Reformation was occurring
- The Pope gambled that Henry wouldn’t risk having the whole nation of England excommunicated
What does Henry do to get rid of Catherine?
He locks Catherine away and starts looking for some way to force the Church to go along with his annulment
What movement does Henry see as his chance to annul his marriage?
Henry latches on to Luther’s break from the Catholic Church as a way to get what he wants
What did Henry name his Church?
The Church of England (Anglican Church)
What happens at the Reformation Parliament?
o England will declare itself no longer under the authority of the Pope, so Henry VIII will become the head of Church of England
o Parliament passes “Act of Supremacy” – all subjects were required to swear loyalty to Henry VIII as the “Supreme Head of the Church of England”
Who does Henry marry after he divorces Catherine of Aragon?
Anne Boleyn
How does his marriage to Anne work out in terms of a male heir?
Anne doesn’t have a son who lives
What child do Henry and Anne Boleyn have who lives?
Anne Boleyn had only a daughter who lived, Elizabeth
How does Henry end his marriage to Anne?
- Henry realized he wasn’t going to have a son with Anne, so he accused her of adultery
- Had her executed for treason along with a bunch of her family
Who does Henry marry after Anne Boleyn?
Jane Seymour
What is “unique” about this marriage between Henry and Jane Seymour?
- Supposedly the only of his wives that he actually loved
* Produced a male heir
What child do Henry and Jane have who lives?
Edward
What happens to Jane Seymour?
She died within weeks of their son’s birth
Who does Henry marry after Jane Seymour?
Anne of Cleaves
What did a painting have to do with Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleaves?
o Henry had been shown a portrait of Anne that made her look very attractive, but Henry didn’t find her attractive in person
o Marriage was annulled with no children
What becomes of Kathryn Howard?
- She was 30 years younger than Henry
- Accused of adultery (with some justification)
- Executed less than 2 years after marrying Henry
Who was Henry VIII’s last wife?
Katherine Parr
What was special about Katherine Parr?
Only of Henry’s wives to outlive him
Who becomes the monarch of England when Henry VIII dies
Edward VI – only male heir
How long does Edward rule?
Became king at age 9, died of consumption (tuberculosis) at age 16
What does Mary I attempt to do when she becomes Queen of England?
o Tried to return England to Catholicism
o Executed many Protestants – “Bloody Mary”
Who becomes monarch when Mary I dies?
Elizabeth I
What European monarch will be the chief rival of England during Elizabeth I’s rule?
Philip II of Spain – tried to force her to marry him
What was the Spanish armada?
An army built by Philip II of Spain to invade England, but it didn’t work
How long does Elizabeth I rule England?
44 years
Prior to the scientific revolution, how did most Europeans arrive at their beliefs about what was true concerning the natural world?
Prior to the scientific revolution, the truth was usually determined by reference to an ancient text of some kind: The Bible
What was the “geocentric theory?”
Geocentric theory – the idea that the Earth was at the center of the Universe
Who developed the Geocentric Theory?
Egyptian mathematician Ptolemy
What two major factors led the scientific revolution to begin in Europe first as opposed to other parts of the world?
- The rise and independence of universities in Europe gave it a unique advantage
- The strategic location of Europe and focus on world exploration
What field of science had the first breakthroughs of the scientific revolution?
Astronomy
Who wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies?
Nicolaus Copernicus
What was the Heliocentric Theory?
proposed that the planets circled the sun rather than the earth
Why was Copernicus’ work published after his death?
It was rejected by the Church because it did not fit the religious explanations
Give a short info summary for Tycho Brahe.
- Danish astronomer
- Recorded movements of the planets
- Confirmed Copernicus’ ideas
- Left a bunch of data for those who came later to study
Give a short info summary for Johannes Kepler
- Continued Brach’s work
- Was able to deduce the mathematical laws that governed planetary motion
- Figured out that the orbits of the planets were elliptical rather than circular
Who developed the first working telescope?
Galileo Galilei
What did Galileo discover that landed him in trouble with the Church?
o Claimed that Jupiter had 4 moons
o Said our moon had a rough surface
What are the 5 main steps of the Scientific Method?
- Observation of problem or question
- Hypothesis development
- Experiment
- Analysis of data
- Conclusion which either confirms or refutes the hypothesis
How is the Scientific Method defined?
a new way to arrive at factual truth
What 2 men were attributed to the development of the Scientific Method?
Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes
What were the major findings/discoveries of Isaac Newton?
- Developed a unified theory of motion – universal gravitation
- Published Work – The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
- Believed that the universe worked like a giant clock with everything aligned mathematically
Zacharias Janssen
invented the microscope
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
used a microscope to observe bacteria and red blood cells
Gabriel Fahrenheit
developed a mercury thermometer
Andreas Vesalius
dissected human cadavers and published first (mostly) accurate anatomy text – On the Structure of the Human Body
Edward Jenner
developed the first vaccine – used to prevent smallpox
Robert Boyle
founder of modern chemistry – basically figured out what elements really are; also developed the gas laws that show how volume, temperature, and pressure interact
What other name is used for “The Enlightenment?”
“Age of Reason”
Who wrote Leviathan?
Hobbes
What was Hobbes’s position in Leviathan about people?
He believed that all humans are naturally wicked and selfish – therefore the role of government was to restrain those impulses and protect society
What was Hobbes’ “social contract?”
Social contract – people hand over rights and freedom to strong rulers for safety
What did Hobbe’s belive was the best form of government?
a strong, absolute monarchy
What three main rights did John Locke believe that every person had?
- Life
- Liberty
- Property
According to Locke, what is the government’s responsibility to its people?
Governments responsibility is to protect the natural rights of its citizens and if it doesn’t do it, then they have the right to overthrow it – the foundational idea of the American Revolution
Who were the “philosophes?”
The philosophes were a group of very influential French thinkers and writers
What were the five core beliefs of the philosophes?
- Reason
- Nature
- Happiness
- Progress
- Liberty
What did the philosophes think about reason?
the truth could be determined by the application of logic
What did the philosophes think about nature?
what was natural was also good
What did the philosophes think about happiness?
enjoyment of natural life was okay; no need to focus on the afterlife (influenced by Renaissance ideologies)
What did the philosophes think about progress?
humanity should and can improve itself and become better
What did the philosophes think about liberty?
people should have protected freedoms
What was the pen name of Francois Marie Arouet?
Voltaire
What were the main issues Voltaire wrote about?
- Used satires to attack political enemies – went to jail twice
- Fought primarily for freedoms of speech and religion
Who wrote On the Spirit of Laws?
Baron de Montesquieu
What was On the Spirit of Law’s main contribution to government organization?
o Outlined the idea of “separation of powers” in government
o 3 branch government: executive, legislative, judicial
o Idea was that each branch would serve as a “checks and balances” on the powers of the other branches
o Became the basis for the US Constitution
Who’s book was titled The Social Contract?
Jean Jacques Rousseau
What were Rousseau’s beliefs about government and freedom?
• Obsessively focused on personal, individual freedom
o Did not care for “civilization.” Felt that people in their “natural” or native states were nobler and that civilization corrupted people
• Rousseau’s social contract was an agreement between individuals in a society to create a government – so they could change it when and if they wanted
• All people are equal, so the nobility and titles should be abolished
What did Mary Astell write and what were its main points?
A Serious Proposal to the Ladies – addressed the lack of education for women; also wrote about the inequalities between men and women in marriage
Who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women?
Mary Wollstonecraft
What was Mary Wollstonecraft’s main argument?
argued for women’s education and urged women to enter fields of politics, medicine, etc.
What were salons?
social gatherings hosted by wealthy Parisian women
Why were salons important to the spread of Enlightenment ideas?
o Invited philosophers, writers, politicians, scientists to come and have conversations about the issues of the day, new discoveries, etc.
o This was how many of the most important ideas of the age became popularized and better known
What was the most influential Parisian salon?
Salon of Marie-Therese
What did Denis Diderot do?
created a work that compiled articles and essays from as many scientists and writers as possible
What three important composers developed the “classical music” of this era?
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
- Franz Joseph Haydn
- Ludwig van Beethoven
Who were the three Enlightened monarchs discussed?
- Frederick the Great of Prussia
- Joseph II of Austria
- Catherine the Great of Russia
