CUE Flashcards
What is urbanisation
The process by which an increasing proportion of a country’s population lives in towns and cities
What has the urban population in the world grown to from 1950 to 2014
746 million to 3.9 billion
What are the most urbanised regions in the world
Northern America
Latin America
The Carribean
Europe
What percentage of people lived in urban areas for Northern America in 2014
82%
What percentage of people lived in urban areas in Latin America in 2014
80%
What percentage of people lived in urban areas in the Caribbean in 2014
80%
What percentage of people lived in urban area in Europe in 2014
73%
Which two continents are mostly rural
Africa
Asia
What percentage people live in urban areas in Afrjcs
40%
What percentage of people live in urban areas in Asia
48%
Where are the fastest growing urban areas found
In Africa and Asia
Which three countries are expected to account for 37% of the projected growth of the worlds urban population between 2014 and 2050
India
China
Nigeria
How many urban dwellers is India predicted to add in 2050
404 million
How many urban dwellers is China projected to add in 2050
292 million
How many urban dwellers is Nigeria predicted to add in 2050
212 million
What is the total world population expected to surpass by 2045
6 billion
Where will much of the expected urbanisation occur
Low income countries
Characteristics of the fastest growing urban areas
Medium sized cities.
Cities with less than one million inhabitants.
Many areas projected to be urban in 2040 are not actually built yet.
What percentage of Indias expected urban growth has yet to be built
70% of the cities.
What led to population losses in the American cities of Buffalo and Detroit between 2000 and 2014
Economic contraction
In 2014 why did New Orleans experience population decline
In the wake of the 2005 hurricane Katrina natural disaster
What is a striking feature of the last 30 years of development
The rapid development of megacities.
What is a megacity
City of urban agglomeration (urban area incorporating several large towns or cities) with a population of more than 10 million
How many megacities were there in 1990
10
How many megacities were there in 2014
28
How many megacities are predicted in 2025
The UN predicts 37
In 2025 what percentage are megacities predicted to hold of the global population
13%
Where is the development of megacities largely concentrated
In Asian
In 2015 what was the worlds largest city
Tokyo, closely followed by Delhi, Mumbai and Shanghai
How many inhabitants did Tokyo have in 2015
38 million
What is a metacity
A conurbation (continuous built up area) of more than 20 million people.
What plans do the Chinese government have
Plans to merge nine cities in the Pearl River Delta to create an urban area 26 times larger than Greater London
Timeline of global ubanisation
1960: 34% in urban areas
2014: 54% in urban areas
2050: 66% in urban areas (90% of this concentrated in Africa and Asia)
Why can cities be classed as efficient
It is easier to provide basic services such as water and sanitation to people living closer together, likewise access to health, education and other social and cultural services is more readily available.
As towns and cities expand why is there a greater strain on the environment and natural resources
The cost of meeting basic needs increases
What has transformed agricultural practices
Globalisation and the impact of climate change
Why has the proportion of people leaving rural areas increased
They are leaving urban areas to find employment in the cities due to the new agricultural practices being industrialised
How are issues of social cohesion evident
As variations in wealth and ethnicity can sometimes lead to hostility
What does the future survival of cities depend on
Sustainable growth.
Ability to tackle the major issues such as provisions of affordable housing, employment, pollution and waste disposal, transport and social inequality.
According to the UN when did London receive megacity status
2013
What is urban growth
An increase in the number of urban dwellers. Classifications or urban dwellers depend on the census definition of urban areas, which vary from country to country. They usually include one or more of the following criteria: population size, population density, average distance between buildings within a settlement and legal and/ or administrative boundaries.
What are the two main causes of urbanisation
Natural population growth.
Migration from rural to urban areas.
What is urban sprawl
The spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
Briefly what are the negative impacts of urban sprawl
Raquires more infrastructures and roads. Habitat loss. More commuting from suburbs to city so more fuel consumption and congestion. Air pollution. Loss of farmland and open spaces. Impact on water quality and quantity. Decentralisation.
How is requiring more infrastructures like cables and pipes a negative impact of urban sprawl
It is less economically efficient to service low-density rural areas compared to compact urban development with the same number of households
How is wild life loss a negative impact of urban sprawl
Because the reach of urban sprawl into rural areas ranks as one of the main causes of wildlife loss because it builds on greenfield sites
How is air pollution a negstive of urban sprawl
More people live a car dependant life style Which leads to increased fossil fuel consumption and emissions of greenhouse gas. The areas may also experience higher temperatures in line with the urban heat island effect
How is the loss of farmland due to urban sprawl a negative impact
It has led to the loss of fresh local food sources with greater food miles as a result.
How does urban sprawl have an impact on water quality and quantity
Covering the countryside with impermeable surfaces means that rainwater is unable to soak into the ground and replenish the groundwater aquifers. It can also lead to greater water run off and increased flood risk
What is decentralisation
The movement of industry and businesses, including retail companies into the suburbs.
What has decentralisation been blamed for
Decline of retail in some city centres and an increasing homogenisation of the landscape
What does homogenisation mean
Where cities become indistinct from one and another
What is an edge city
New self-contained settlements have developed beyond the original city boundary
What have American cities in particular witnessed the growth of during urban sprawl
Large edge-of-city complexes including shopping malls and leisure areas
What are two causes of urban growth
Natural population growth.
Rural-urban migration.
What has urbanisation historically been linked to
Other important economic and social transformations
What have economic and social transformations brought about because of urbanisation
Greater geographic mobility.
Lower fertility.
Longer life expectancy.
How do cities hold an important role in reducing poverty
They hold much of the national economic activity, government institutions, business and transportation and have higher levels of education, better health, easier access to social services and greater opportunities for cultural and political participation.
What is Brazil’s economic and financial capital
São Paulo
In 2015 what percentage of São Paulo accounted of the population and national GDP
10% of population but 25% of GDP
What does GDP stand for
Gross Domestic Product
What percentage of Kenya accounts for the country’s population and GDP
8.4% of population and almost 20% or the country’s GDP
What are the age profiles in urban areas
Relatively young
What is the age range for young adults
15-40
What are pull factors in urban areas
Higher paid jobs
Better educational opportunities
Greater social and cultural diversity
Between 2001 and 2011 what happened to the population of large city centres in England in Whales
It more than doubled, with the number of residents aged 22-29 nearly tripling to make up almost half of their population.
Why are the rates of natural increase higher in cities than in surrounding rural areas
The migrants are in their fertile years
What are fertile years
The years during which people have children
Where in London is deemed ‘nappy valley’
Area stretching from Clapham, south of the River Thames, westwards to Fulham, north of the river
Why did ‘nappy valley’ get its name
Due to the high proportion of young families living there
What has encouraged young families to remain in the city
In the past professional couples with young children would have moved to the suburbs when they could afford it but the rising costs and time involved in commuting means more families stay in the city
What is a push factor
Cause people to move away from rural areas
What is a pull factor
Factors that attract people to urban areas
In low income countries which factors are more important
Push factors rather than pull
What are the six brief push factors
Population growth.
Agricultural problems.
High levels of disease and inadequate medical provision.
Agriculture is increasingly being organised globally.
Natural disasters.
Wars.
How is population growth a push factor
The same area of land has to support increasing numbers of people, causing over-farming, soil erosion and low yields
How is agricultural problems a push factors
Desertification because of low rainfall, systems of inheritance that cause land to be subdivided into small plots, systems of tenure and debt on loans taken out to support agricultural change
How is agriculture increasingly being organised globally a push factor
Land that has previously been used to grow food for local people is now used to produce cash crops for sale to higher income countries. Many traditional rural communities have been driven off their land and into cities
How are natural disasters push factors
Floods, tropical storms and earthquakes mean people flee rural areas and do not return
How is war and civil strife a push factor
They cause people to flee their land
What are 4 pull factors
Employment.
Earning money from the informal sector.
Better quality social provisions.
A perceived better quality of life.
How is employment a pull factor
Employment in factories and service industries is better paid with than in rural areas. There is an increasingly high demand for unskilled labour in cities
How is the informal sector a pull factor
Earning money for example selling goods on the street, providing transport or prostitution
How is better quality of social provisions
Basic needs such as education and health care to entertainment and tourism
How is perceived better quality of life in the city portrayed
Through images in the media
What are the six consequences of urban growth
Urban sprawl.
Shortage of housing in lower-income countries.
Shortage of affordable housing in high income countries.
Lack of urban services and waste disposal.
Unemployment and underemployment.
Transport issues.
What can problems with housing, traffic, waste disposal, crime and pollution be linked to in cities all over the world irrespective of their economic status
The unique geographical circumstances of the city, such as topography, climate and function
Traditionally how has the process of urban sprawl occurred
In an uncontrolled and unplanned fashion
What are the 6 negative impacts of urban sprawl
Requires more roads and infrastructure. Wildlife habitat loss. More commuting from suburbs to the city increasing fuel consumption and congestion. Air pollution. Loss of farmland and open spaces. Impacts water quality and quantity.
How is this a negative impact of urban sprawl: needs more roads and infrastructures such as cables and wires
It is less economically efficient to service low density rural areas compared to compact urban developments with the same number of households
How is this a negative impact of urban sprawl: reach of urban sprawl info surrounding rural areas
Wildlife habitat loss
How is this a negative impact of urban sprawl: more commuting
Increased fuel consumption and traffic consumption
How is this a negative impact of urban sprawl: air pollution
A more car dependant lifestyle leads to increased use of fossil fuels and emissions of greenhouse gases. The area may also expereince higher temperatures in line with the urban heat island effect.
How is this a negative impact of urban sprawl: loss of farmland
This has in turn led to loss of fresh local food sources with greater food miles as a result
How is this a negative impact of urban sprawl: water quality and quantity
Covering the countryside with impermeable surfaces means the rainwater is unable to soak into the ground and replenish groundwater supplies. It can also lead to greater water run off and increased flood risk.
Along with the movement of people to the suburbs what’s another important component in urban sprawl
Decentralisation
What is decentralisation
The movement of population and industry from the urban centre to outlying areas. The term may encompass the processes of both suburbanisation and counterurbanisation
What has decentralisation been blamed for in some city centres
The decline of retail and an increasing homogenisation of the landscape
What is an edge city
Self contained settlements developed beyond the original city boundary and developed as a city in its own right
What have American cities in particular witnessed because of urban sprawl
The huge growth of large edge-of-city complexed including shopping malls and leisure areas
What is a consequence of population density being high in urban areas
Shortage of accommodation, leading to the presence of large areas of informal and inadequate housing
Where does informal and often inadequate housing usually form
On the edge of the city or in areas of low land value prone to environmental hazards such as flooding or landslides, they may also be found adjacent to transport networks or in areas suffering high levels of air, water and noise pollution
What do informal settlements usually have limited access to
Basic infrastructure such as water, electricity and waste disposal and a lack of services such as health centres and schools
In 2013 what did the UN Habitat report the numbers of people living in slum conditions were
863 million, up from 760 million in 2000 and 650 million in 1950
What is another word for ‘population counts’
Enumeration
How does the fact that slums do not have detailed enumeration affect the estimated population
The actual number of slum dwellers is likely to be in the excess of one billion not 863 million as the UN habitat estimate
How has the number of Mumbai slum dwellers changed from 2005 to 2015
Gone from 6 million to 9 million
What are the informal settlements in Brazil called
Favelas - they line the hills of Rio de Janiero
What are informal settlements in India called
Bustees
What are informal settlements in West Africa called
Bidonvilles
Why has the term ‘slum housing’ been critiqued by people
They see it as a political label
In Mumbai, what are some examples of ‘home grown neibourhoods’
Shivaji Nagar and Dharvi
What is a ‘Home-Grown neighbourhood’
The argument that ‘slums’ were developed gradually by people who live there, with the help of local artisans of construction and usually with little or no support from the authorities
What happened to the proportion of people living in slums between 2000 and 2012
It fell
What was the goal of the Millenial Development Goal 7
Ensure environmental sustainability
What helps provide evidence for the fact that the lives of slum dwellers have improved between 2000 and 2012
The relative success of the Millenial Development Goal 7.
The proportion of slum dwellers falling.
Between 2000 and 2014 what did the UN report of slum dwellers
More than 320 million people living in slum dwellers gained access to improved water sources, improved sanitation facilities or durable or less crowded housing. However the total number of people living in slums has continued to increased
What is a target in the post-2015 sustainable development goals
To ‘ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services, and upgrade slums by 2030
In the last, what was the most extreme strategy adopted by authorities to do with slums and did it work
Eradicate slums.
It just moved the problem elsewhere.
After trying to eradicate slums, what was the authorities next approach to help and did it work
Acknowledge the presence of slums and provide help in the form of materials or services. These self help or ‘site and service’ schemes have proved remarkably successful in some cities but the quantity and/ or quality of housing remains inadequate in most urban areas around the world
What are the most recent initiatives to help slums
Slum upgrading programs. These seek to improve the slums in partnership with local NGOs and development organisations, they focus on securing rights for dwellers, formalising land tw sure rights and providing basic amenities.
What are examples of basic amenities
Electricity, water and waste disposal
What is an urbanisation bred to help slums
Shack/Slum Dwellers International (SDI)
What is the purpose of the organisation SDI
It gives a voice to those living in informal settlements and links up poor communities across Africa, Asia and Latin America. The idea is that slum dwellers share their knowledge and expertise so that they are not excluded from the economic and political processes happening in the city
In the Uk, what had the rising demand for accommodation in cities led to
A dramatic increase in both house prices and rental costs
In some parts of London what did the average house prices rise by
50% between 2010 and 2015
What is rising house prices fuelled by
In-migration, gentrification and by the purchasing of properties by wealth foreign investors
Why do overseas investors buy properties in London
Because London is a major global hub and they buy to diversify their international portfolio
What can financial restraints in lower income countries result in
A lack of basic services such as water and electricity, maintainence of infrastructure is also limited
What can limited maintenance of infrastructure such as roads, sewers and drainage result in
Traffic congestion.
Polluted watercourses.
Flooding.
Rapid spread of disease.
In India, what has the lack of misntenance of infrastructure led to
Old pipeline infrastructure has not kept pace with urbanisation, resulting in large urban areas devoid of planned water supply and sewage treatment.
In 2015 what percentage of piped water reached the slum areas in 42 Indian cities and towns
5%
What restraints are placed on waste disposal
Economic, physical and environmental
Which city authority is only able to deal with 2/3 of the rubbish created by the growing population
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
In Addis Ababa what happens 1/3 of the rubbish that isn’t dealt with by the city authority
It is left to private contractors to collect or is simply left on the streets and in rivers created a huge health hazard
Example of a landfill site where families live in makeshift housing and search for material they can use or sell
Koshe Dump
Why is there considerable pressure to create sufficient jobs in cities
Such a high proportion of the people who move to cities are young
What are unemployment rates usually
Typically high although official data is hard to find and many migrants find employment in informal work
What is under-employment
A situation in which a person is not doing work that makes full use of their skills and abilities
When may underemployment occur
When migrant moves to a new city
What has the processes of urbanisation and suburbanisation led to
Increased traffic in cities accords the world,m
What does increased traffic lead to
More congestion.
Pollution.
Damaging human health.
Wasting billions of pounds in lost productivity.
What has the spread of houses into the suburbs and beyond created
Surges of morning and evening commuters
What adds to the problem of transport issues because of urbanisation
Traffic flow for shopping, entertainment and other commercial services add to the problem
During the car boom of the 1960s, what did city planners build as a solution
More and wider roads, it didn’t work.
Why didn’t the solution to the car boom in the 1960s work
The more roads created, the more cars they attracted
What did the study into traffic in California in 1997 find
That new, additional traffic will fill up to 90% if any increase in road capacity within 5 years.
Why is transport issues such a big consequence of urbanisation and urban sprawl
Because no matter how much money is spent on traffic infrastructure, congestion and parking problems seem to get worse
What is counter urbanisation
Movement of people from large urban areas into smaller urban areas or into rural areas thereby leapfrogging the rural-urban fringe. It can mean daily commuting but can also require lifestyle changes and the increased use of ICT
What is deindustrialisation
The loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector, which occurred in the UK in the second half of the twentieth century
What is gentrification
The buying and renovating of properties, often in more run-down areas, by wealthier individuals
What is suburbanisation
The movement of people from living in the inner parts of a city to living on the outer edges. It has been facilitated by the development of transport networks and the increase in ownership of private cars. These have allowed people to commute to work.
What is urban resurgence
Refers to the regeneration, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline. This is often initiated by redevelopment schemes but is also due to wider social, economic and demographic processes
What was the trend of movement in the industrial period
More people moving into urban areas as opposed to more recently people moving outwards
During the mid twentieth century what was suburbanisation facilitated by
The growth of public transport systems and the increased use of the private car.
The presence of railway lines and arterial roads also enabled wealthier commuters to live some distance away from their places of work.
What was ribbon development in towns and cities
In the 1930s planning controls and urban growth took place alongside main roads - this was known as ribbon development.
By the 1940s what was created because of the concern due to growth in ribbon development
Creation of green belts - areas of open space and low-density land use around towns where further development was controlled
Since 1950s what has happened to suburban expansion
It has increased and been better planned
During the 1950s and 1960s what construction took place
Large scale construction of council housing took place on the only land available; the suburban fringe
In the 1970s what construction occurred
There was a move towards home ownership, which led to private housing estate being built, also on the urban fringe. These allowed people to have more land for gardens and more public open space
Why has there recently been more development on the edge of towns
Car ownership grew.
More land available for car parking and expansion.
What was built on the edge of cities in the 1970s
New offices, factories and shopping outlets. In a number of cases, the strict control of the green belt was ignored
What has recently been built on the edge of cities
New housing estates.
Local shopping centres.
Schools.
Why do people move to the suburbs
They desire a quieter, less congested and less polluted environment. The suburbs are perceived as relatively crime free.
they also demonstrate other key benefits of the rural urban fringe such as woodlands and parks, golf courses and playing fields.
What are many housing estates in suburban areas seen as
Highly sought after in the property market
What are some negative impacts specifically to do with suburbanisation
Increased social segregation: wealthy move out and poor remain in city.
Diversion of funding from the inner city to the suburbs to pay for new infrastructure and services.
Example of social segregation to do with suburbanisation
American cities, where segregation has occurred as a result of both wealth and ethnicity
What does counterurbanisation lead to
Not suburban growth, but to growth in rural areas beyond the main city.
What is reduced as a consequence of counter urbanisation
The difference between rural and urban areas
What are the 4 factors causing counter urbanisation
People want to escape air pollution, dirt and crime of urban environment.
Car ownership and greater affluence allow people to commute.
Many employers have moved from the city.
Improvement of technology has allowed more freedom of location.
What is ‘rural idyll’
What people see as a pleasant, quiet and clean environment of the countryside where house prices are cheaper
How has improvement in technology been a factor in counter urbanisation
The spread of broadband and high speed internet access means that someone working from a home computer csn now access the same global system as a person in an office block in the same centre of a city
What has there been a rising demand for in the countryside
Second homes and early retirement
What is the rising demand for second homes and retirement a direct consequence of
Rising levels of affluence
What is one straightforward way for farmers to raise money due to agriculture facing economic difficulties
Sell unwanted land and buildings
How does counter urbanisation affect the layout of rural settlements
Modern housing estates are built on the edge of smaller settlements, and small industrial units on the main road leading into the settlement. Former open areas are built on, old properties and some agricultural buildings are converted and modernised
Why may there be tension between newcomers and locals because of counter-urbanisation (much like with gentrified areas in inner cities)
Despite the influx of new people, local services tend to shut down.
Bus services to many rural communities have disappeared, schools and post offices have closed and churches have closed are parishes are amalgamated to larger units.
What is the main reason for local services shutting down because of counter urbanisation
Newcomers have the wealth and mobility to continue to use the urban services some distance away
What are the four pieces of evidence for counter urbanisation in an area
Increase in the use of a commuter railway station in the area.
Increased house prices.
Construction of more executive housing in the area, often on newly designed building land, following demolition of old properties.
Conversions of former farm buildings to exclusive residences.
What is sometimes referred to as the rural turn around
Processes which contribute to social and demographic change in rural settlements
What four things may be included in a ‘rural turnaround’
Outmigration of young village born adults seeking opportunities elsewhere.
Decline of elderly village born population, through deaths.
In migration of young to middle aged married couples or families with young children.
In migration of younger, more affluent people, which results in increased house prices.
- NOTE these changes do not take place uniformly within all rural settlements and these are considerable variations between and within parishes
What is a suburbanised village
The parishes with the most change are key settlements that have a range of basic services and good access to commuter routes
Why has urban resurgence been seen in many cities in recent years
Redevelopment schemes have made city living more attractive
Where is urban resurgence particularly present
Former industrial cities in the UK which suffered from the manufacturing decline in the 1970s and 1980s but have reinvented themselves as cities of culture and commerce.
Examples of former industrial cities in the UK that bounced back after de-industrialisation in the second half of the twentieth century
London, Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds
How have former industrial cities revived their fortune
Developing strong financial, business and consumer service industries and have attracted more university students, young professionals and immigrant workers
How is urban resurgence evident in a city
In its changing landscapes
Areas of a city may contain industrial architecture of the past such as
Factories and warehouses
Increasingly, what have industrial architectures of the past been converted to
Housing or commercial use and modern infrastructure and services are added
What have many urban rebranding schemes been successful in
Transforming run down areas.
Rebranding them as fashionable districts or ‘quarters’.
How does rebranding cities into fashionable districts help the city
It attracts more new comers, often young professionals with s higher disposable income
What is urban resurgence often driven by
Government-led regeneration schemes but there are wider economic, social and demographic processes which hare also important
What has redevelopment by private companies led to
Wholesale transformation of parts of UK cities in recent years and this has served to attract further investment
Why has city living become more attractive
Urban areas are improved by urban resurgence so people chose to live closer to work, entertainment and leisure facilities rather than face the long and costly commute
What has facilitated the resurgence in some places
Globalisation and technology change
Example of a place where its reputation for creative and digital start up businesses have attracted a huge in-migration of people
East London
What can act as a catalyst to changing the fortune of an area
Major sporting events such as the London Olympics bringing much needed investment to former industrial parts of East Lodnon
What kind of effect does resurgence babe
A positive multiplier effect, it initiates further improvements and attracts greater investments into an area
Why is urban resurgence sometimes not good
As more people are attracted back to the city, grates pressure it put on the urban infrastructure and some people may find themselves displaced as house prices rise in line with the demand.
Also concerns that not everyone benefits from resurgence and this has led to increasing inequality between rich and poor.
Examples of American cities which have experienced an urban resurgence in recent decades
New York, Boston and Los Angeles
In what time frame saw a huge population decline in urban areas as families increasingly moved to the suburbs
Second half of the twentieth century
What process does the term ‘dead-heart syndrome’ describe
Loss of manufacturing and retail businesses and the traditional ‘downtown’ areas (major retain centre of cities) were in decline, along with neighbouring residential areas, due to outwards movement of families to suburbs in the twentieth century
What time frame saw the beginning of a resurgence
1900s
What has helped revive the fortune of many American cities
A sustained period of national economic growth, successful regeneration schemes and more attractive urban design.
More young people are remaining in cities to start a family while many older people whose children have left home are moving back to the city to be close to urban services.
What has the population revival in urban cities increased
Demand for services and has fuelled a prosperous urban economy in many cities
Prior to deindustrialisation in the late twentieth century, what was a key development in the growth of urban areas
The Industrial Revolution and the rise of the manufacturing industry
What did cities become synonymous with in the period of the industrial revolution
Particular types of industry.
Textiles - Manchester.
Iron and Steele - Sheffield.
Shipbuilding - Glasgow.
In the industrial revolution why did so many people migrate to urban areas
Because of the rise of the manufacturing industry, there were thousands of jobs created
By the 1980s what were many of the older industrial cities experiencing
Severe economic problems associated with the decline of manufacturing
What were the 3 main factors attributing to the decline of manufacturing in cities
Mechanisation.
Competition from abroad, particularly rapidly industrialising cities of the time such as Taiwan, South Korea, India and China.
Reduced demand for traditional products as new materials and tschnologies have developed.
What is mechanisation
Most firms can produce their goods more cheaply by using machines rather than people
During the decline of manufacturing employment, what did the variation of the unemployment figures between cities depend on
The size of the city, ths composition of the urban economy and the actions of the local government
Which cities suffered more extensive loses during the decline of manufacturing employment
Cities in the manufacturing heartlands such as Manchester, Liverpool and Sheffield
What was the difference in number of employees between 1980 and 2015 as shown by ONS
1980-6,403
1995- 4,201
2015-2,658
How was their significant variation of employment within cities during the decline of manufacturing employment
Inner city areas contained many of the old types of workplace most likely to be closed - old plants with the oldest production techniques, lowest productivity etc.
The inner city also lacked suitable land for the expansion of existing manufacturing and as a result new investment tend to be located on the edge of urban areas or more rural locations.
What is the movement of industry away from the inner city known as
Decentralisation
What did decentralisation affect in the late twentieth century
Residential and retail land
What was decline in manufacturing employment in the late twentieth century accompanied by
The rise of the service economy in urban areas
What activites does the service economy cover
Tertiary activities such as financial services like banking, retailing, leisure, transport, education and health.
Quaternary activites where knowledge or ideas are the main output, such as advertising, computer programming and software design.
What are the four reasons the service sector has grown
Population growth.
Financial services are needed to support manufacturing industries, which are sill important in many cities.
Societies become more technologically sophisticated, they need a larger range of specialised services to keep them running.
Societies become wealthier, they demand more leisure and retail services.
For many urban areas what has there been a dramatic shift in
Their economic core from manufacturing to service based activities
Where are the major financial centres located
In world cities
Where are corporate headquarters located and why
In clusters in urban areas where they can access national and international markets, a highly skilled labour force and specialist support services
As said by Drake and Lee’s ‘The Urban Challenge’ what are the 8 economic impacts of de-industrialisation on urban areas
Loss of jobs and disposable income.
Closure of other businesses: ‘closing industry’.
Loss of tax income to local authority.
Potential decline in services.
Increase in demand for state benefits.
Loss of income in service sector as a result of falling spending paper of the local population.
Decline in property prices as outmigration occurs.
Leads to the de-multiplier effect in urban areas affected.
As said by Drake and Lee’s ‘The Urban Challenge’ what are the 5 social impacts of de-industrialisation
Increase in unemployment.
Higher levels of deprivation.
Out migration of population, usually those who are better qualified and more prosperous.
Higher levels of crime, family breakdown, alcohol and drug abuse and other social problems.
Loss of confidence and morale in local population.
As said by Drake and Lee’s ‘The Urban Challenge’ what are the 5 environmental impacts of de-industrialisation
Derelict land and buildings.
Long term pollution of land from ‘dirty industries’ such as dye works remain a problem because there is no money for land remediation.
Deteriorating infrastructure.
Reduced maintanence of local housing caused by lower personal and local authority incomes.
Positive impacts: reduction in noise, land and water pollution and reduced traffic congestion.
Who created ‘the urban challenge’
Drake and Lee
Where provides an important environment for social networking, which is heavily drawn upon in business
City bars.
Restaurants.
Clubs.
The growth of the service sector has gone some way to reduce unemployment caused by de-industrialisation however these 4 problems still exist
Many people who lost their jobs through deindustrialisation have continued to suffer from long term unemployment.
Many service jobs are part time or temporary.
Number of service jobs created has not always made up for loss of manufacturing jobs.
Inner city locations avoided by service industries and newer manufacturing companies leading to continued inner city decline.
What is urban policy
The strategies chosen by local or central government to mans have the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems
Since when has regeneration been a key element of urban policy in the UK
The 1980s
What did early regeneration strategies focus on compared to more recent strategies
‘Top-down’ economic regeneration but subsequent policies have recognised the need to adopt a more holistic approach, hackling economic, social and environmental problems from the ‘bottom-up’.
The urban policy used between 1979-1991
Emphasis given to property-led initiatives and the creation of an entrepreneurial culture
Details of the urban policy in 1979-1991
Emphasis on the role of the private sector to regenerate inner city areas.
Coalition boards set up with people from local business community and they were encouraged to spend money buying land, building infrastructure and marketing to attract private investment.
Examples of the urban policy of emphasis given to prosperity led initiatives and the creation of an entrepreneurial culture in 1979-1991
Urban development corporations.
Urban land grants.
Enterprise zones.
Derelict land grants.
The urban policy used between 1991-1997
Partnership schemes and competition-led policy
Details of the urban policy in 1991-1997
Focus on local leadership and partnership between the private sector, local communities, voluntary sector and the local authority.
Strategies focused on tackling social, economic and environmental problems in run-down parts of the city, which now include peripheral estates.
Example of urban policy of partnership schemes and competition led policy in 1991-1997
City challenge.
City pride.
Single regeneration budget.
What does the term ‘bottom up’ mean
When local people are consulted and supported in making decisions to undertake projects or developments that meet on or more of their specific needs
What does ‘top down’ mean
When the decision to undertake projects or developments is more by a central authority such as government with little or no consultation with the local people whom it will affect
What is devolution
The transfer or delegation of power to a lower level, especially by central government to local or regional administration
The urban policy used between 1997-2000s
Area-based initiatives
Details of the urban policy used between 1997-2000s
Focus on narrowing the gap in key social and economic indicators between the most deprived neighbourhoods and the rest of the country.
Local authorities set targets to improve levels of health, education and employment opportunities and funding was allocated to assist them in delivering government objectives.
Examples of the urban policy of area based initiatives used in the 1997-2000s
New deal for communities.
Regional Development Agencies (RDAs).
The housing market renewal programme.
What might the urban policy’s be in the future
There have been calls for a greater devolution of powers (devolution deals) to English Cities, such as the type granted in Greater Manchester in 2014. Some feel this will lead to more effective place-based urban policies.
What does urban form refer to
The physical characteristics that make up built up areas, including the shape, size, density and organisation of settlements
Details of the regeneration policy: Urban Development Corporations
Set up in the 1980s primarily to regenerate inner city areas.
The boards of UDcs were made up of people from local community and they were encouraged to spend money on land, infrastructure and marketing to attract private investment. Funding came direct from central government.
Details of the regeneration policy: city challenge
1990s, Cities had to compete with each other for government regeneration grants.
The cities with the ‘best’ schemes were awarded the grant.
Local authority led scheme which formed partnerships between the private sector, local communities and the local authority.
Strategies focused on tackling social, economic and environmental problems in run down parts of the city.
Details of the regeneration policy: New Deal for Communities
2000s, the NDC partnerships were established to carry out 10-year strategic programmes designed to transform the 39 most deprived neighbourhoods and improve the lives of those living within them.
Local partnerships of residents, businesses, community organisations and local authorities were established but the focus was very much on communities being ‘at the heart of the regeneration’
What scales can urban forms be considered at
From regional to urban, neighbourhood and street
What are urban forms continually evolving in response to
Social, economic, environmental, political and technological developments
What did a government report on ‘Urban form and infrastructure in the U.K.’ (2014) report
That the UKs urban form is characterised by 64 ‘primary urban areas’, including one built up megacity region (London and the Greater South East), six large metropolitan areas (Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham, Manchester, Newcastle and Sheffield) and 56 towns and cities with more than 125,000 people
What are the largest urban forms
Megacity is and world cities
What has led to the rapid rise of megcities
Globalisation and economic competition between countries and cities
How has mass migration fuelled large scale population growth
When people are faced with poorer economic prospects in rural areas and the perception of a better life in the city they tend to move in mass migration
Historically, what were the greatest global cities
The largest, however recently this is not important it is more the influence
Of the worlds most populous cities which 3 cities are in the top ranking of the worlds most important cities
Tokyo, New York , Beijing
What term is given to cities which have the greatest influence on a global scale
World city/global cité
What is one of the more commonly cities rankings to measure a city
It is carried out by the Globalisation and World Rankings Research Network (GaWC) called the Alpha, Beta and Gamma rankings
What is the Alpha, Beta and Gamma ranking of cities based on
Initially on the connectivity of cities through four advanced producer services: accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and law.
New indicators were added in 2004 but economic factors are still deemed more important than political and cultural indicators.
What are the cities called below the alpha, beta and gamma rankings
Cities with ‘sufficiency of services’ - not world cities but have sufficient services so as not to be dependant on world cities. They tend to include smaller capital cities and traditional centres of manufacturing regions
What are the 12 characteristics of a world city
Centres of media and communications for global networks.
Headquarters of multinational corporations.
Major manufacturing centres with port and container facilities.
Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area.
Dominance of the national region with great international significance.
Existence of financial headquarters, stock exchange and major financial institutions.
Centre of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture and politics.
Considerable decision making power at a global level.
High proportion of residents employed in service information sectors.
Variety of international financial services including insurance, real estate, banking, marketing etc.
High quality educational institutes including renowned universities, international student attendance and research facilities.
Multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal,C medical and entertainment facilities, in the country.
What is an Alpha ++ city
More integrated than all other cities and constitute their own high level of integration
Example of Alpha ++ cities from 2012 GaWC ranking
London
New York
What is an Alpha + city
Other highly integrated cities complement London and New York, largely filing in advanced service needs for the Pacific Asia
Example of Alpha + cities from 2012 GaWC ranking
Tokyo Hong Kong Paris Shanghai Singapore Beijing Sydney Dubai
What is an Alpha and alpha - cities
Very important world cities that link major economic regions and states into the world economy
Example of Alpha and alpha- cities from 2012 GaWC ranking
Chicago Milan Mumbai Moscow São Paulo Frankfurt Toronto LA Madrid And more
What is a beta level city
Important world cities that are instrumental in linking their region state into the world economy
Example of Beta cities from 2012 GaWC ranking
Bangalore Lisbon Copenhagen Santiago Rome Cairo And more
What is a Gamma level city
These can be world cities linking smaller regions or states into the world economy, or important world cities whose major global capacity is not in advanced producer services
Example of Gamma level cities from 2012 GaWC ranking
Zagreb Lahore St Petersburg Durban Bristol Islamabad
What does urban morphology refer to
The spatial structure and organisation of an urban area, traditionally this would have been affected by physical factors such as relief and drainage
Why did early industrial areas develop close to rivers
So they could harness the power of water for energy and transportation
Why was flat land also important for some industrial areas
To transport goods via roads or railways
Why does relief still play an important role today for the organisation of an urban areas
Because flat land is easier to build on and may attract a higher land value. Conversely, flat land close to rivers may pose a flood risk.
In poorer cities where are informal settlements often found
On undeveloped steep land
Example of shanty town built on steep land
Brazil’s largest shanty town, Rocinha is built on a steep and rugged hillside overlooking Rio de Janiero. The poorer parts of the shanty town are found higher on the hilltop, with many houses only accessible on foot.
Why is urban form today more strongly influenced by human nature
Because humans have been able to overcome the limitations imposed by physical factors
What is the main factor affecting land use in high-income countries
Land value
Where is land value traditionally higher
In the centre of a city where accessibility is greatest
Where is the Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI)
The point with the highest land value and from here, land prices decline in line with the theory of distance-decay
What is the point with the highest land value called
The Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI)
Describe the typical land values for s city in a high income country
The Peak Land Value Intersection in the middle.
From this runs motorways and main roads.
As you get further from the PLVI there is a decline in land values.
However, you can get Secondary Land Value Peaks such as where there are shopping outlets on the edge of cities.
Along these is the outer ring roads.
Which businesses usually occupy the PLVI
Only very profitable businesses such as large retailers that can afford the prices of the PLVI. In the Uk the site has been occupied by the likes of Marks and Spencer’s.
Who occupies the CBD
Other retailers and commercial enterprises but they cannot all afford to pay the high prices required for the most accessible locations
What is likely to be found towards the edge of the CBD
Smaller retailers and businesses who cannot afford to pay the high prices required for the most accessible locations
Why do land values fall significantly in transect of the CBD to the suburbs
The different land users are less reliant on accessibility and unable to pay the higher prices associated with this, this is known as the bid-rent theory
Traditionally, what does the bid-rent theory show
There has been a move from retailing to industrial and commercial and then residential areas
What is the distance decay theory
As distance from the CBD increase there is less competition for land, so the values fall
Roughly what does the bid-rent theory show
Shops and offices can afford the high land values of the CBD.
Industry cannot afford the highest land values so is found away from the CBD.
Housing can only afford low land values.
Price of land ^
Distance from CBD >
What shows that the 1980s trend towards out of town shopping centres affected land values in some cities
The presence of secondary peaks
Why did secondary land value peaks occur
An increase in traffic meant that the city centre was no longer always the most accessible part of the city and a lack of expansion encouraged some of the large retailers to look elsewhere for potential new sites
For the consumer, what did the growth of edge-of-town developments provide
Free parking and other land uses such as cinemas and restaurants which proved to be highly attractive. Land values subsequently rose in such areas.
What is the CBD
The central areas of a place which contains the major shops, offices and entertainment facilities
What is the inner city
An area of old housing and light manufacturing industry. This area dates back to the industrial revolution when it was compromised mainly of terraced housing providing accommodation for factory workers. Many British cities have seen regeneration in these areas in the last three decades.
What is the residential land use in a city
Consists of housing from a range of periods, which has traditionally increased in both size and price as one moves towards the outskirts. Urban regeneration and gentrification means that some of the more expensive properties can now be found in traditional ‘low class residential’ areas while council estates are on the edge of cities and are now among some of the most depressed parts of British cities
What is the green area of a city
Such as parks tend to be dotted throughout an urban area. They range from large botanical gardens of national importance down to playgrounds within a housing estate
What is the out of town retail developments in a city
Originally developed by large supermarkets, these spaces soon expanded to include non food retail units and entertainment complexes. They have had a negative impact on some towns and cities. In 1994 the UK govern,went started to actively discourage their development
What is the business or science parks in a city
Tend to be found on the edge of urban areas where there is good access to main roads. Some science parks are located near universities
What is the industry part of a city
Manufacturing industries often require large areas of land and tend to be located towards the edge of cities where cheaper land is available. Deindustrialisation brought about the large scale decline of manufacturing industry in British cities and former factory sites have either been demolished or converted into other land use. The later may scull occupy their hisotrical location in the inner city
What is the informal settlement part of a city
Features of cities in low income countries. Traditionally developed on the edge of cities although they have also been found adjacent to transport routes or in areas of the city unpopular with residents like rubbish dumps. Physical factors such as steep slopes, unstable land and areas prone to natural hazards may also encourage their development.
What can encourage greater financial investment
Government policies such as the establishment of Special Enterprise Zones in Chinese cities
Why do problems occur because of population growth
The growth in population is not matched by a growth in resources and infrastructure
How do megacities in low income countries spread
In haphazard fashion
What has the haphazard fashion of megacities in low income countries led to
The challenge of providing employment, housing and basic services
What are the concerns about megacities
About how city authorities can effectively govern such large cities
On average how much more GDP do megacities produce compared to other cities
2 to 3 times more
What were the 5 characteristics and benefits highlighted in 2014 by a United Nations report on urbanisation
1: they offer opportunities to expand access to services, such as health care and education, for large numbers of people in an economically efficient manner.
2. Less environmentally damaging to provide public transport, housing, electricity, water and sanitation for a densely settled urban population than a dispersed rural population.
3. Urban dwellers have access to larger and more diversified employment markets.
4. Better levels of education and healthcare can improve the lives of the poor and empower women in countries where they do not have equal status.
5. Megacities are centres of innovation where many solutions to global problems are being trialled
Why are political protests more common in urban areas
Large numbers of younger people are brought together
What is a fortress landscape
Landscapes designed around security, protection, surveillance and exclusion
What is a world city
Cities which have great influence on a global scale, because of their financial status and worldwide commercial power.
Which are the three cities which have traditionally sat at the top of the global hierarchy
New York.
London.
Tokyo.
Which cities are now joining New York, London and Tokyo at the top of the global hierarchy
Beijing.
Shanghai.
Mumbai.
What are some characteristics of the 6 cities at the top of the global hierarchy
House the headquarters of many transnational corporations (TNCs).
Centres of world finance.
Provide international consumer services.
What are the 7 main land use zones in a city
Central business district. Inner city. Residential. Green areas. Out of town retail developments. Business of science parks. Industry. Informal settlements.
What have some city centres in the UK experienced in the last 30 years
Decline
Why was the decline in city centres due to in the 1980s and 1990s and more recently
1980-1990s: The development of out-of-town retail parks and the decentralisation of business and residential areas, which served to pull people away from the CBD.
High parking costs, congestion and perceptions of the city centres as dirty and unsafe were further disincentives for shoppers.
Recently: due to the phenomenal growth of Internet shopping.
What are a few strategies devised to help reverse the decline of city centres
Provision of a more attractive shopping environment.
The construction of all weather shopping malls.
Improvement in public transport links.
Establishment of business and marketing teams to co-ordinate managment of the CBD and run special events.
The 2000s ha e seen two other notable strategies as well.
What are many cities encouraging the development of to increase The attraction of the city centre
Functions other than retailing
Briefly, what are 7 functions other than retrial encouraged in city centres
Wider range of leisure facilities.
Availability of space.
Promotion of street entertainment.
Developing nightlife.
Developing flagship attractions.
Constructing new offices, appartments, hostels and conference centre.
Encouraged residential areas to return to the city centre.
Example of leisure facilities
Cinema Theatre Cafe Wine bars Restaurants Other cultural and meeting places to attract a greater range of people
Examples of adding space into a city centre
Gardens.
Squares or plazas.
What does adding space into a city enable
People watching and other activists
Example of a famous street entertainment
Covent Garden in London
Example of developing nightlife
Clubbing
Why is developing nightlife not always positive
These see negative issues associated with clubbing such as the high level of policing that is necessary
Example of a developed flagship attraction
At-Bristol Science Centre and M Shed museum and gallery in Bristol
How does constructing new apartments, offices, hotels and conference centres help a city
It raises the status of the CBD for business and encourages tourists to remain near the city centre
How can a city encourage residential areas to return to city centres
By providing flats, redeveloping old buildings (gentrification) or building new upmarket apartments
What has the combination of strategies to increase the attraction of the city centre and stricter planning controls placed on out of town developments meant
That large cities in the UK have successfully attracted shoppers and visitors back to the city centre.
Where are decision makers still worried about the decline of the CBD
In smaller cities and urban areas
What have many cities across the uk initiated the planning and development of and why
Cultural and heritage quarters as a deliberate model for urban regeneration of declining inner urban areas
When did culturally-led urban development first begin to appear
1980s
Early UK examples of culturally or heritage quarters in 1980
Sheffield Cultural Industries Quarter and Manchester Northern Quarter
What is a prerequisite for a cultural quarter
Presence of cultural production (making objects, goods and products) or consumption (people going to shows, visiting venues, galleries)
What do heritage quarters focus on
The history of the area based around small-scale industries
What do the most successful quarters tend to be
Those actually making something or associated with a product, such as the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter
What reputation do many famous quarters tend to build and why is this good
Regional and in some cases national reputation which attracts visitors and tourists from further afield bringing financial benefits to the wider area
What have some critics argued about cultural quarters
That not all towns and cities need them and in some areas they have simply created higher property values
What have experiences of different ‘quarters’ shown
That some are more successful than others
Why are quarters usually viewed in a positive light
They are a good tool for regeneration, they improve perceptions of place and preserves the history and culture
What is gentrification
The buying and renovating of properties often in more run-down areas by wealthier individuals
Who supports gentrification
Groups such as estate agents and local authorities
In the last few decades what has gentrification helped to do
Regenerate large parts of British inner cities
What is involved in gentrification
Rehabilitation of old houses and streets on a piecemeal basis
Who carries out gentrification
Individuals or groups of individuals rather than large organisations
What are 5 brief reason gentrification can happen
The rent gap. Commuting costs. The 'pioneer' image. The support of government and local decision makers. Changing composition of households.
What does the rent gap refer to
The situation when price of property has fallen below its real value, usually due to lack of maintenance or investment, and there is a ‘gap’ between actual and potential prices.
Why are properties with the rent gap attractive to builders, property developers or individuals
They can afford to renovate the properties and then sell them on to make a property
How does commuting costs cause gentrification
Commuting can be time consuming, expensive and stressful. Moving closed to the city centre can eliminate the need to commute.
What does the ‘pioneer’ image refer to
The trend of creative individuals such as artists and designers moving into more ‘edgy’ neighbourhoods.
Why does the ‘pioneer’ image exist
The groups moving into the edgy neighbourhoods are not interested in the conformity of suburban living but are drawn to the diverse cultural opportunities of the urban centre
Examples of the ‘pioneer’ image
Hoxton and Shoreditch in London and SoHo in New York City are seems as the location of vibrant art scenes
How does the support of government and local decision makers cause gentrification
Both groups are keen to impoverished the economy and environment of the inner city areas and gentrification is seen as an improving part of this
How does changing composition of households cause gentrification
Many cities have seen the growth of single or two person households without children. These households are more likely to see the benefits of inner city living
What are the 4 costs of gentrification
People on low incomes cannot afford higher property prices or rents.
Higher cad ownership may increase congestion.
Potential loss of business for traditional local shops.
‘Gentrifers’ may be seen as a threat to the traditional community and friction may occur between ‘newcomers’ and original residents.
What are 4 benefits to gentrification
Rise in general level or prosperity and increasing number and range of services and businesses.
Increased local tax income for the local authority.
Physical environment of the area improved.
Greater employment opportunities created in areas such as design, buildings and refurbishment.
What are the two conflicting views of commentators on gentrification
Some have emphasised the importance of gentrification in inner city regeneration, others have raised concerns about the displacement of low income families and small businesses.
In London, what has gentrification continued significantly to
The lack of affordable housing and prices have been pushed up even beyond the level of well-paid professional workers
What are becoming more common because of gentrifcation
Anti-gentrification processes
What does fortress landscape mean
Refers to landscapes designed around security, protection, surveillance and exclusion
In the UK what are 5 strategies used to reduce crime in urban hotspots
Greater use of CCTV.
Railings and fencing around private spaces.
‘Mosquito’ alarms which emit a high pitched sounds heard only by young people, to discourage loitering around certain buildings.
Effective use of street lighting.
Speed bumps to prevent joyriding.
Examples of urban hotspots
City centres and inner city estates
What are more recent strategies used to rescue crime in urban hotspots
Focused on ths concept of ‘designing out crime’ through better urban architecture
Examples of UK city ‘designing out crime’
Manchester, the redevelopment of housing in parts of Greenheys and Wythenshawes estates have included more Windows to provide more natural surveillance, provision of front gardens with fences or hedges to mark a clear boundary between private and public space and bins in gated compounds rather than open alleyways.
What are features avoided in ‘designing out crime’
Recessed doorways for people to hide in.
Projecting window sills or exposed rainwater downpipes, which would make it easier for anyone to climb on to the roof and dark alleys and dead ends associated with muggings and drug deals.
What are some exclusionary tactics some UK cities have adopted from North America
The use of anti-homeless spikes fitted into the ground in shop doorways or outside upmarkets apartments. Heavily criticised. High pitched mosquitos alarm. Sloped bus shelter seats. Special benches to deter skateboards. These raise few eyebrows.
What are increasingly becoming a feature of some urban landscapes
Gated communities
Where are gated communities common
USA and South Africa
What is increasing in British cities security
Electronic control of access into housing complexes
What notion is present in the idea of fortress landscapes
The idea of ‘insider’ and ‘outsider’
What are edge cities associated with
The urban landscape of North America and have been viewed by some as a feature of postmodern urban living
What are edge cities largely the result of
Urban sprawl
Why has the emergence of edge cities happened on a large scale in the USA
It is a result of higher car ownership, greater willingness to travel long distances for work, shopping and entertainment and limited planning restricting in the suburbs
What is a common example of a sprawling urban settlement
Los Angeles
How is Los Angeles a good example of a sprawling urban settlement
In 2015 the core city of Los Angeles which is 30 kilometres wide had 4 million residents.
However this is surrounded by a metropolitan area of nearly 18 million people which is more than 100 kilometres at its widest point.
Within this area there are more than 20 edge cities.
Where do edge cities develop close to
Major roads or airports and tend to be found in close proximity to shops, offices and other businesses which decentralised from the original city
While edge cities lack a clear structure they have a wide range of amenities including
Schools, shopping malls and entertainment facilities, residents may rarely go back to the original core city
What has edge cities been linked to
Extreme social segregation where the wealthy have moved to the new suburban settlements leaving only the poor and disadvantaged sections of society in the original city boundary
What does the term post modern describe
The changes that took place in Western society and culture in the late twentieth century
What did post modernism mainly concern
Art and architecture and it marked a departure from the conformity and uniformity of modernism
What is post modernism characterised by
The mixing of different artistic styles and architecture
What are 7 features of a postmodern western city
Fortress Landscapes.
More fragmented urban form comprising independent settlements (Edge cities), economies, societies and cultures.
Greater ethnic diversity but heightened economic, social and cultural inequalities and polarisation.
Spectacular flagship developments such as the Guhgenheim museum in Bilbao, Spain.
Eclectic and varied architecture as seen in the London city scape.
Greater emphasis on producer services and knowledge based industries rather than industrial mass production.
What has the notion of the postmodern western city been based on
While elements of postmodernism can be seen in cities all over the world,cit is based on experiences of a small number of (mainly American) cities
What is Los Angeles often referred to as
The archetypal postmodern city but experiences of cities like Los Angeles are clearly not representative of cities elsewhere in the world.
What is economic inequality
The increasingly large wealth gap between rich and poor residents which is a key feature of cities in Asia, Africa and South America
Where is a good example of economic inequality
In Mumbai, the worlds most expensive home towers over one of the largest slums in the area. Antilla is a 27 storey home worth $21 billion. Within a short distance is Byculla, an area I habituated by Mumbais 9 million slum dwellers
What do most slum dwellers in Mumbai survive on
Less than $2 a day
