Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence D265

Question 1

Propositions

Answer 1

Statements that can be true or false.

Question 2

Non-propositions

Answer 2

Sentences that are not statements about matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that can be true or false.

Question 3

Which sentence is a non-proposition?

• If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window.
• The earth is the third planet from the sun.
• Where are the keys to my car?
• Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.

Answer 3

Where are the keys to my car?

Question 4

Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now? Let’s go ask whether the deal was closed.

In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition?

• Where is the president right now?
• Did the company really close that deal?
• Let’s go ask whether the deal was closed.
• It has had a great year.

Answer 4

It has had a great year.

Question 5

Simple proposition

Answer 5

Simple propositions have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own.

Question 6

Complex propositions

Answer 6

Complex propositions have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false.

Question 7

Which sentence expresses a complex proposition?

• Birthday parties can be really fun.
• The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
• Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States.
• Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible?

Answer 7

The cat ate the food, but did not like it.

Question 8

If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.

Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions?

• If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
• The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
• The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.
• The company does not have enough computers.

Answer 8

The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.

Question 9

If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is.

Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?

• The new employee wants to succeed.
• How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness?
• The employees look out for each other.
• If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time.

Answer 9

The new employee wants to succeed.

Question 10

The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem will only get worse.

Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?

• Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
• The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us.
• What can be done to improve this?
• Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care.

Answer 10

Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.

Question 11

Bad inferential structure

Answer 11

Every argument with the same structure as this argument is bad (invalid or weak). The premises do not, in fact, demonstrate or maybe even support the conclusion. In other words, we can accept the premises as true without being compelled to accept the conclusion. There is something wrong with this argument’s general structure.

Question 12

False premise

Answer 12

This particular argument has a premise/assumption that is false. There is something wrong with this argument’s particular content.

Question 13

Conclusion Indicators

Answer 13

Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result

Question 14

Premise Indicators

Answer 14

Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, as indicated by

Question 15

“Since we cannot go out until the restaurant opens, and given that we are trying to save money, we should just hang out here until closer to dinner.”

Which statements are the premises of the following argument? Choose 2 answers.

• We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
• We are trying to save money.
• We should just hang out here until closer to dinner.
• We can have a good time without spending money.

Answer 15

• We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
• We are trying to save money.

Question 16

Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. This means that the exam was too difficult to accurately assess student learning. Therefore, as exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning, the exam must be revised and readministered.

Which statement is the conclusion of the above argument?

• The exam must be revised and readministered.
• Some students in the class scored higher than 70% on the exam.
• Exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning.
• Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam.

Answer 16

The exam must be revised and readministered

Question 17

Which sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.

• We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor’s test.
• The student only cheated on the exam because their financial aid depended on it.
• No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.
• If you suspect you have been infected with rabies, then you should contact a medical professional immediately.

Answer 17

• We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor’s test.
• No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.

Question 18

Which pairs of sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.

• Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
• We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life.
• John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John.
• One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared.

Answer 18

• Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
• We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life.

Question 19

I just heard the news about Riley’s car. It was vandalized last Saturday. There is no doubt Jordan did it. I went to the bowling alley that night. I bowled a 160! Anyway, I saw Jordan there and, although it was barely noticeable, I definitely saw paint on Jordan’s shirt. It is unlikely there would be paint on Jordan’s shirt unless Jordan had spray-painted Riley’s car. It is a shame, really, since it was such a nice shirt. It was the green one. Oh, and you know Jordan has motive. After all, Jordan has a well-known grudge against Riley. You remember when Riley borrowed Jordan’s lawnmower and did not return it. And there was opportunity, because Jordan does not work on the weekend and usually stays home watching television. But the lightning storm earlier last week short-circuited Jordan’s TV set. Besides, they canceled Jordan’s favorite Saturday evening show.

Which description best characterizes the above?

• A story
• An argument

Answer 19

An argument

Question 20

Kinds of Inferences

Answer 20

Deduction

Induction

Inference to the best explanation or abduction

Question 21

Deduction

Answer 21

arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion

— mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition

Question 22

Induction

Answer 22

arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable

— analogies, authority, causal inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc.

Question 23

Inference to the best explanation or abduction

Answer 23

arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation

Question 24

Truth

Answer 24

A true proposition accurately represents reality.

Question 25

Validity

Answer 25

In a good deductive argument structure, true premises make the conclusion necessarily true. (If not, it is an invalid structure.)

Question 26

Sound Argument

Answer 26

All True Premises + Valid Structure

Question 27

Soundness

Answer 27

The deductive argument is valid, and all premises are true premises. (If not, it is an unsound argument.)

Question 28

Strength

Answer 28

In a strong inductive argument, true premises make the conclusion probably true.

Question 29

Cogency

Answer 29

Strong inductive arguments with all true premises are cogent.

Question 30

Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red.

Which kind of argument is this?

• A strong argument
• Deductive argument
• A weak argument
• A valid argument

Answer 30

A strong argument

Question 31

Some arguments are such that the premises of the argument entail its conclusion, which means that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.

What are such arguments called?

• Inductive arguments
• Abductive arguments
• Fallacious arguments
• Valid arguments

Answer 31

Valid arguments

Question 32

Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete.

Which kind of argument is this?

• A conditional proposition
• A valid argument
• A strong argument
• An invalid argument

Answer 32

A valid argument

Question 33

In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness?

• Validity concerns the truth of an argument’s premises, but soundness requires a high degree of probability.
• Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises.
• Validity concerns an argument’s probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms.
• Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength and plausible premises.

Answer 33

Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises.

Question 34

Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers.

• I disagree with my opponent’s position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
• I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.
• Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased.
• While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is right.

Answer 34

• I disagree with my opponent’s position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
• I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.

Question 35

Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers.

• Hey, let’s go to lunch at noon today.
• Mangino’s has the best pizza.
• They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
• Do you like Mangino’s pizza?

Answer 35

• Mangino’s has the best pizza.
• They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.

Question 36

Which statement is a simple proposition?

• Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car.
• I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work.
• I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk.
• By noon, the sun was shining.

Answer 36

By noon, the sun was shining.

Question 37

Which indicator is a premise indicator?

• Hence
• Because
• Thus
• Therefore

Answer 37

Because

Question 38

Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research.

Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.

• Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
• The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
• The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
• Banks should help fund industry research

Answer 38

• The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
• Banks should help fund industry research

Question 39

Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.

Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?

• German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
• Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
• You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
• It is important to select the right breed for your needs.

Answer 39

You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.

Question 40

Everyone should vote ___________________.

Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?

• because it is their duty
• for the most honest candidate
• in their assigned district
• before the deadline

Answer 40

because it is their duty

Question 41

People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time.

Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?

• Proposition
• Inference
• Weak argument
• Strong argument

Answer 41

Proposition

Question 42

Jordan says, “I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car.” Taylor, Jordan’s best friend, totally agrees.

Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan’s comments? Choose two answers.

• Weak argument
• Proposition
• Inference
• Strong argument

Answer 42

• Weak argument
• Inference

Question 43

All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute.

Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?

• Deductive
• Invalid
• Inductive
• Abductive

Answer 43

Deductive

Question 44

Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny.

Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?

• Valid
• Sound
• Inductive
• Deductive

Answer 44

Inductive

Question 45

All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly.

Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers.

• Deductive
• Valid
• True
• Sound

Answer 45

• Deductive
• Valid

Question 46

An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall.

Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers.

• Deductive
• Valid
• Strong
• Cogent

Answer 46

• Strong
• Cogent

Question 47

If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald.

Which type of logic error is this an example of?

• Begging the question
• The fallacy fallacy
• Denying the antecedent
• Affirming the consequent

Answer 47

Affirming the consequent

Question 48

If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave.

Which type of logic error is this an example of?

• Affirming the consequent
• Denying the antecedent
• Begging the question
• The fallacy fallacy

Answer 48

Denying the antecedent

Question 49

One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong.

Which type of logic error is this an example of?

• Affirming the consequent
• Denying the antecedent
• Begging the question
• The fallacy fallacy

Answer 49

Begging the question

Question 50

My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round.

This is an example of which type of logic error?

• Denying the antecedent
• Affirming the consequent
• Begging the question
• The fallacy fallacy

Answer 50

The fallacy fallacy

Question 51

Which of the following is an accurate characterization of “fallacy” as that term is used in logic?

• A fallacy is a formal violation of a state law.
• A fallacy is a false claim.
• A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive.
• A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.

Answer 51

A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.

Question 52

Formal Fallacy

Answer 52

The word “formal” refers to the structure of things.

Question 53

Informal Fallacy

Answer 53

Informal fallacies have a problem with their content.

Question 54

A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concerns _______.

Answer 54

the structure of an argument

By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument and an informal fallacy concerns the information contained in the argument’s structure.

Question 55

A formal fallacy is a type of _______.

Answer 55

Bad argument structure

Formality is associated with structure.

Question 56

Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source? Choose 2 answers.

• Who funded it?
• Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
• Does it support your beliefs and values?
• Is it free of bias?

Answer 56

• Who funded it?
• Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?

Question 57

Which study is most likely to be corrupted by bias?

• A study by the marketing department of an oil company determining the best use of the company’s advertising dollars
• A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic foods
• A study by an independent research group detailing the effects of global warming
• A study by a nonpartisan polling firm showing strong support for a new tax levy

Answer 57

• A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic foods

Question 58

Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news? Choose 2 answers.

• Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
• Does the story support your political views?
• Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news?
• Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?

Answer 58

• Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
• Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?

Question 59

Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? Choose 2 answers.

• It makes debates easier to win.
• It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
• It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
• It makes one look good by making one’s opponent look weak.

Answer 59

• It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
• It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.

Question 60

Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity?

• Shae said, “It seems that the earth is flat.” Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
• Morgan said, “The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive.” Morgan must think education is unimportant.
• Reese said, “The oil industry has contributed to climate change.” Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
• Campbell said, “People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences.” Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished.

Answer 60

Shae said, “It seems that the earth is flat.” Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.

Question 61

Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts the author’s claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author’s claims about the disadvantages of technology.

Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?

• Dunning-Kruger effect
• Self-serving bias
• Optimism bias
• Confirmation bias

Answer 61

Confirmation bias

Question 62

Cognitive bias

Answer 62

The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us.

Question 63

Alief

Answer 63

An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs.

Question 64

Heuristic

Answer 64

a rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut

Question 65

Which of the following is an example of the anchoring bias?

• Ortega is inclined to accept relevant evidence that supports his views about religion, but to deny relevant evidence that counts against his views.
• Smith accepts a belief only because all of his friends accept it.
• Miller possesses a good deal of knowledge about her profession, which is banking. She therefore concludes that she also knows a good deal about political science.
• Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first piece of evidence.

Answer 65

Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first piece of evidence.

Question 66

Algorithm bubble

Answer 66

The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on.

Question 67

Availability heuristic

Answer 67

A process where in the mind generalizes based on what is available to it rather than on what is objectively true.

Question 68

Which of the following is a form of cognitive bias?

The false dilemma fallacy

The Peter Principle

Begging the question

Alief

Answer 68

Alief

Question 69

Which of the following is most likely to be most impacted by cognitive bias?

• A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic
• A peer-reviewed academic journal
• A newspaper article about a recent baseball game
• A history textbook written by a reputable historian

Answer 69

A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic

Question 70

Which type of generalization is rationally acceptable?

• A generalization treated as if there were no exceptions, when in fact there is at least one exception
• A generalization based on an adequate number of relevant cases
• A generalization based on an unfair stereotype
• A generalization based on an insufficient sample

Answer 70

A generalization based on an adequate number of relevant cases

Question 71

Which of the following is the most relevant question to ask when seeking to identify an unwarranted statistical generalization?

• Does the generalization follow at least one rule of deductive logic?
• Does the generalization confirm what you already believe?
• Is the generalization consistent with popular beliefs in your society?
• Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples?

Answer 71

Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples?

Question 72

The Bright Tooth toothpaste company runs the following advertisement: “Use Bright Tooth toothpaste. Nine out of ten dentists recommend it!” You decide to research this claim. You discover that the Bright Tooth toothpaste company surveyed only ten carefully selected dentists, nine of whom expressed support for Bright Tooth toothpaste. You also learn that, as of 2019, there were 200,419 dentists in the United States alone. Which error is committed in the advertisement?

• Selection bias
• Thinking Slow
• Selective attention
• Unfair stereotype

Answer 72

Selection bias

Question 73

Which is the best example of System 1 thinking?

• Researching different candidates’ tax plans to determine how to vote
• Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
• Splitting the bill with friends at a restaurant
• Consulting multiple sources to form an investment plan

Answer 73

Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed

Question 74

Which is the best example of System 2 thinking?

• Choosing the best college for one’s child
• Realizing, due to a crashing sound, that something happened upstairs
• Thinking that food is rotten because it smells bad
• Solving the equation 1+3=?

Answer 74

Choosing the best college for one’s child

Question 75

System 1 Thinking

Answer 75

This is quick, automatic thinking

Question 76

System 2 Thinking

Answer 76

This is deliberate thinking

Question 77

When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely.

Which statement is correct about the source of bias in the passage and how to avoid its impact?

• This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
• This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative viewpoints.
• This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one’s instincts and avoiding too much deliberation.
• This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one’s beliefs and not allowing outside influences to change one’s views.

Answer 77

This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.

Question 78

Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct?

• Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.
• Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in trying to respond to bias.
• Humans are not influenced by bias.
• All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible.

Answer 78

Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.

Question 79

Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?

• Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
• Whether the article contains video footage
• Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
• Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media

Answer 79

Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified

Question 80

While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does not.

What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more credible?

• Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a government agency.
• The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it reflects professionalism and objectivity.
• It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
• The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it is more straightforward and objective.

Answer 80

It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.

Question 81

In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?

• Confidently, because the source likely has exclusive information.
• Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
• Confidently, because the source is concerned with telling the true story.
• Skeptically, because the source reflects a formal fallacy.

Answer 81

Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.

Question 82

Two politicians are engaged in a debate about healthcare. The first politician claims that human beings have a right to access healthcare. The second politician responds that this claim is unclear. He asks, “What do you mean by ‘right’ and ‘access’?” The first politician responds by claiming that voters support accessible healthcare.

Which fallacy is the first politician committing?

• The false dilemma fallacy
• The red herring fallacy
• The equivocation fallacy
• The ad hominem fallacy

Answer 82

The red herring fallacy

Question 83

Which of the following is a fallacy of relevance?

• The fallacy of hasty generalization
• The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
• The fallacy of anthropomorphism
• The genetic fallacy

Answer 83

The genetic fallacy

Question 84

A pen is a writing utensil. Sometimes, animals are kept in a pen. Thus, sometimes, animals are kept in a writing utensil.

What fallacy is found in this argument?

• The fallacy of equivocation
• The fallacy of begging the question
• The fallacy of sweeping generalization
• The appeal to popularity fallacy

Answer 84

The fallacy of equivocation

Question 85

Ad Hominem Fallacy (Latin for “to the man”)

Answer 85

A fallacy of logic in which a person’s character or motive is attacked instead of the person’s argument

Question 86

Genetic Fallacy

Answer 86

Condemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it.

Question 87

Straw Figure Fallacy

Answer 87

is committed when one misrepresents another’s argument then attacks the misrepresented (weaker) argument rather than the actual (stronger) argument.

Question 88

red herring fallacy

Answer 88

the use of irrelevant material to divert attention

Question 89

appeal to authority fallacy

Answer 89

error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it

Question 90

appeal to force (fallacy of relevance)

Answer 90

when one uses a threat to compel agreement with one’s claim

Question 91

Appeal to Popularity Fallacy

Answer 91

Arguing that a claim must be true because lots of people believe it.

Question 92

appeal to consequences fallacy

Answer 92

when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or accept) it as true.

Question 93

Fallacy of Equivocation

Answer 93

when one’s argument mistakenly uses the same word in two different senses.

Question 94

Conner and Miller are discussing the topic of intelligent life in other solar systems. Conner asks Miller, “Do you believe that there is intelligent life in the Alpha Centauri planetary system?” Miller replies, “I don’t know that there isn’t intelligent life there. There’s no proof that there isn’t. So, I believe there is intelligent life in that planetary system.”

Which fallacy did Miller commit?

• The false dilemma fallacy
• The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
• The fallacy of begging the question
• The fallacy of appeal to the people

Answer 94

The fallacy of appeal to ignorance

Question 95

Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery.

Which fallacy did Jones commit?

• The fallacy of appeal to emotion
• The fallacy of wishful thinking
• The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
• The false dilemma fallacy

Answer 95

The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc

Question 96

What fallacy occurs when a person reasons that one event is likely to lead to another event due to a chain of intermediary events, even though the probability of that entire chain being realized is low?

• The slippery slope fallacy
• The fallacy of ad hominem
• The fallacy of avoiding the issue
• The bandwagon fallacy

Answer 96

The slippery slope fallacy

Question 97

Which of the following is the most pertinent question to ask when trying to identify the fallacy of begging the question?

• Are the premises known to be true?
• Is the argument relevant to the topic of the debate?
• Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
• Is the conclusion known to be true?

Answer 97

Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?

Question 98

Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this:

Either p is true or q is true.

Q is not true.

Therefore, p is true.

However, there is a third option, r.

Which of the following fallacies is present in this argument?

• The fallacy of cherry-picking the evidence
• The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
• The fallacy of circular reasoning
• The false dilemma fallacy

Answer 98

The false dilemma fallacy

Question 99

Suppose that Smith asserts a claim that could be true but seems implausible. Jones recognizes this point and asks Smith to provide evidence for his claim. Smith responds: “Why don’t you try to disprove my claim?”

Which fallacy is found in this argument?

• The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
• The fallacy of oversimplification
• The fallacy of selective attention
• The red herring fallacy

Answer 99

The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof

Question 100

In which argument do premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3)?

• (1) Broccoli is high in important nutrients like vitamin C. (2) Broccoli also has antioxidants that prevent cell damage. (3) I told you that broccoli was healthy!
• (1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation.
• (1) The Titanic famously capsized in 1912, even though people thought it was very safe. (2) There have been high-profile passenger plane crashes around the world. (3) Clearly traveling is not without some risk.
• (1) The new candidate has significant experience in the field. (2) Furthermore, they were recommended by someone I trust. (3) I think we should hire them.

Answer 100

(1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation.

Question 101

Which statement correctly identifies the subpremise, the main premise, and the main conclusion in the following argument?

(1)The elementary school should run more earthquake drills next year. (2) We have reason to believe that the likelihood of an earthquake is increasing because (3) a federal report released last year said that our area’s earthquake danger is on the rise.

• 1 is the main premise, 2 is the subpremise, and 3 is the main conclusion.
• 1 is the main premise, 2 is the main conclusion, and 3 is the subpremise.
• 1 is the main conclusion, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the subpremise.
• 1 is the subpremise, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the main conclusion.

Answer 101

1 is the main conclusion, 2 is the main premise, and 3 is the subpremise.

Question 102

Main Conclusion

Answer 102

Final conclusion of the argument

Question 103

Main Premise

Answer 103

One among the set of premises that directly support the main conclusion

Question 104

Sub-inference

Answer 104

An inference from a premise to another premise

Question 105

Sub-premise

Answer 105

premises that are supporting one of the main premise.

A premise in a sub-inference

Question 106

Sub-conclusion

Answer 106

A conclusion in a sub-inference

Question 107

premise

Answer 107

an assumption; the basis for a conclusion

Question 108

We should buy an electric car. Granted, they are more expensive up front than gas cars, but we have the money, and we will save on gas in the long run. Additionally, electric cars are better for the environment. And they are becoming more stylish!

Which is a hidden assumption of the given argument?

• If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.
• Gas cars will continue to become cheaper in the future as they lose popularity.
• Electric cars’ batteries do not have any negative consequences for the environment.
• We do not have enough money for an electric car because we spent all our money on a vacation this year.

Answer 108

If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.

Question 109

Which argument would require a conjoint, hidden assumption to be paired with premise (1) when mapped?

• (1) We can either eat out at a restaurant or stay in. (2) We should not stay in. (3) So we should go out to a restaurant.
• (1) If it had rained last night, the sidewalk would still be wet. (2) But the sidewalk is dry. (3) So it must not have rained last night.
• (1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A.
• (1) If we want to support a reasonable tax plan, we should vote for Candidate A. (2) We do want to support a reasonable tax plan. (3) So we should vote for Candidate A.

Answer 109

(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A.

Question 110

Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument.

(1) We really should be giving more foreign aid to developing nations. (2) It is desirable for the people of the world to have a more equal access to resources, and (3) our nation has more resources than developing nations do. (4) Foreign aid will help give them more equal access to resources. Additionally, (5) there will be more international trade in the future once those nations are further developed, and (6) foreign aid will help them further develop.

• In the past, international trade was not necessarily beneficial to developed nations.
• We should give more foreign aid to developing nations.
• Generosity is a virtue.
• It would be a good thing to increase international trade.

Answer 110

It would be a good thing to increase international trade.

Question 111

Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument.

(1) Over 70% of residents say that traffic congestion is a major problem in our city. (2) The research group that conducted that survey has a great track record, by the way. (3) And other nearby cities that have invested in transportation have seen significant economic benefits. (4) This all shows that it would be a good idea for our city to invest in transportation.

• Other nearby cities spent significant sums to build subway systems.
• Residents’ levels of concern regarding transportation are higher than their concern regarding education, public safety, or public recreation.
• If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well.
• The research group has a perfect track record on surveys regarding economic issues in particular.

Answer 111

If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well.

Question 112

Professor Smith fell asleep during class today. So Professor Smith is probably a bad teacher.

Which missing premise best completes the above argument?

• Some former students have given Professor Smith bad reviews online.
• Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.
• Professor Smith always gives me low grades even though I study hard.
• Experts agree that falling asleep during class is not a good teaching strategy.

Answer 112

Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.

Question 113

Quinn started eating donuts for breakfast every day. Consequently, Quinn is likely to gain weight.

Which missing premise best completes the above argument?

• Donuts are not healthy.
• Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.
• Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
• When I started eating donuts for breakfast, I gained five pounds by the third day.

Answer 113

Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.

Question 114

Which is the most plausible counterexample to the general moral principle that one should never lie?

• Telling a lie to save innocent lives
• Telling a lie to get out of trouble
• Telling a lie to avoid paying income tax
• Telling a lie to land a dream job

Answer 114

Telling a lie to save innocent lives

Question 115

A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has never served in the military.

Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter’s argument?

• Pointing out that the premise of the reporter’s argument is flawed
• Pointing out the reporter’s well-known reputation for taking faulty positions
• Pointing out the reporter’s affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political slant to their coverage
• Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military

Answer 115

Pointing out that the premise of the reporter’s argument is flawed

Question 116

Reese’s partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted.

Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument?

• Slippery slope
• Hasty generalization
• Equivocation
• Appeal to ignorance

Answer 116

Hasty generalization

Question 117

In a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to $15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A’s position.

Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy?

• Student B stating her concern about international policy
• Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line
• Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods and services
• Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics

Answer 117

Student B stating her concern about international policy

Question 118

Which two statements depict the fallacy of presumption called begging the question? Choose 2 answers.

• The universe could not have been created from nothing, so it must have been created by the big bang.
• People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility.
• Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
• Washington DC is the capital city of the United States of America.

Answer 118

• People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility.
• Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.

Question 119

There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, “Well, you never returned the wheelbarrow I let you borrow.”

Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?

• Red herring
• False cause
• Genetic fallacy
• Straw figure

Answer 119

Red herring

Question 120

“A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry.”

Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?

• Post hoc ergo propter
• Irrelevant appeal
• Begging the question
• Genetic fallacy

Answer 120

Genetic fallacy

Question 121

Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true.

Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?

• Burden of proof shifting
• Slippery slope
• Appeal to ignorance
• Texas sharpshooter

Answer 121

Texas sharpshooter

Question 122

Which statement is the burden of proof fallacy?

• A mother tells her child it is time to go to bed, and when the child asks why, the mother responds, “Because I said so.”
• Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no consequences.
• A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot’s existence, the hiker replies, ‘prove Big Foot is not real.
• “Since you have not been able to prove you did not steal the bicycle, I will assume you are guilty.”

Answer 122

A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot’s existence, the hiker replies, ‘prove Big Foot is not real.

Question 123

“If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any school spirit.”

Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers.

• The argument includes a false dichotomy..
• The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.
• The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
• The argument mistakes causation for correlation.

Answer 123

• The argument includes a false dichotomy.
• The argument contains black-and-white thinking.

Question 124

Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher.

What is the unstated assumption in this argument?

• Students like and respect Mrs. Murdock.
• Mrs. Murdock’s class is lacking in educational rigor.
• Students who do homework and study for exams get good grades.
• A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.

Answer 124

A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.