Critical Thinking Misc.

Question 1

Simple sentences contain…

Answer 1

One assertion

Question 2

Compound sentences contain…

Answer 2

Two or more assertions

Question 3

Conjunction examples:

Answer 3

‘and’, semi-colon, ‘while’, ‘but’, ‘although’

Question 3

Argument definition (lecture):

Answer 3

A discourse in which some statements are offered as justifying, proving or making probable some other statement

Question 3

Modal expressions examples:

Answer 3

‘must’, ‘possibly’, ‘may’, ‘can’, ‘probably’

Question 4

How modal expressions are used:

Answer 4

Necessary truths or necessary falsehoods, capacities and opportunities, inference indicators

Question 5

Necessary truth:

Answer 5

Things that can’t be false by definition

Question 6

Contingent truth:

Answer 6

A true statement which is, as a matter of fact, true, but could possibly have been false

Question 7

Two ways in which a statement can be derived from two other statements:

Answer 7

Convergent and linked

Question 8

Convergent structure:

Answer 8

When a conclusion can be derived from each premise of them quite independently of its derivation from the other.

Question 9

Linked structure:

Answer 9

When a statement can be derived only by taking the two statements together, each of them on its own giving no independent support to the conclusion but giving some support when combined.

Question 10

Assessing support question:

Answer 10

‘Supposing for the sake of argument that these premises are true, how improbable does this make it that the conclusion is false?’ In the case where “if the premises were true it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false” we have complete support.

Question 11

Deductive validity:

Answer 11

The truth of the premises’ guaranteeing absolutely the truth of the conclusion

Question 12

Test for validity:

Answer 12

(1) Drop the inference indicator
(2) Conjoin (&) premises and negation of conclusion
(3) If result is a contradiction, argument is valid

Question 13

Estimating degrees of support question:

Answer 13

Supposing the premise(s) were true, is there any way not involving contradiction in which the conclusion nevertheless would be false? If there is no way, then the degree of support is complete.

Question 14

Formal Logic (deductively valid):

Answer 14

All C are M
All M are H
Therefore,
All C are H

Question 15

Disjunctive syllogism:

Answer 15

Either P or Q; but not-P; so, Q

Question 16

A priori truth:

Answer 16

A claim which can be shown to be true or false without having to look at the world to find out.

Question 17

A priori truths are contrasted with…

Answer 17

A posteriori claims

Question 18

A cogent argument:

Answer 18

An argument in which the premises are rationally acceptable and also strongly support the conclusion

Question 19

Transposition (deductively valid):

Answer 19

If A then B = If not-B then not-A

Question 20

Double negation:

Answer 20

A = not-not-A

Question 21

Sufficient vs Necessity:

Answer 21

The antecedent is sufficient for the consequent, and the consequent is necessary for the antecedent.

Question 21

Only if:

Answer 21

If P then Q = P only if Q

Question 22

Unless:

Answer 22

If P then Q = Not-P unless Q

Question 23

Biconditional form:

Answer 23

If P then Q = P if and only if Q

Question 24

Hypothetical syllogism (valid)

Answer 24

If A then B
If B then C
Therefore,
If A then C

Question 25

Modus Ponens (valid):

Answer 25

If A, then C
A
Therefore,
C

Question 26

Modus Tollens (valid):

Answer 26

If A, then C
Not-C
Therefore
Not-A

Question 27

Denying the antecedent (invalid):

Answer 27

If A, then C
Not-A
Therefore,
Not-C

Question 28

Affirming the consequent (invalid):

Answer 28

If A, then C
C,
Therefore,
A

Question 29

Conditionalisation (not equivalent, they correspond)

Answer 29

P, so C = If P then C

Question 30

Broad reductio:

Answer 30

Produces a consequence that is thought to be absurd because it is obviously false. This doesn’t have to be a contradiction.

Question 31

Narrow Reductio:

Answer 31

Produces an explicit contradiction