Critical Reasoning Flashcards
CR - Building Blocks of an Argument:
Premise:
- all arguments contain at least one premise.
- part of the core of the argument
- supports author’s claim or conclusion
- can be fact or opinion; can be description, historical information, data
- often signaled by words such as:
- because of
- since
- du to
- as a result of
Conclusion:
- present in most, not all, arguments
- part of core of argument
- represents author’s main opinion or claim
- supported by at least one premise
- can be prediction, judgement of quality or merit, statement of causality, outcome of a plan
- often signaled by words such as:
- therefore
- thus
- so
- consequently
Background:
- not part of core
- not always present in argument
- provides context to help understand core, similar to premise but less important to argument itself
- almost always fact-based
- can be in almost any form
Counterpoint or Counterpremise:
- not part of core
- opposes or goes against author’s conclusion
- beware of traps: don’t confuse conclusion for premise or vice versa.
- often signaled by transition words such as; counterpoint may come before or after these words:
- although
- though
- however
- yet
- but
REMEMBER: GMAT can vary these types of building blocks in an argument and the oder. So, you have to learn to categorize the building blocks in any argument.
CR - Intermediate and Final Conclusions:
Some arguments make things harder by having intermediate and final conclusions.
They can follow a logical order like here:
The burglar is clumsy and often makes a lot of noise while robbing homes. As a result, he is more likely to get caught. Thus, in the near future, he will probably end up in jail.
The first sentence is a basic premise: it indicates a factual information about the robber. The second is an INTERMEDIATE conclusion, and that conclusion supports the FINAL conclusion.
The premise supports the intermediate conclusion, which then supports the final conclusion.
Notice how the final conclusion logically follows the intermediate conclusion. The final conclusion could not be the intermediate conclusion and the intermediate conclusion the final conclusion because that order of the sentences would not make any sense. That’s how you know which one is the intermediate and which one is the final conclusion. Use the BECAUSE/THEREFORE test to find out which is intermediate and which is final
Right: Because he is more likely to get caught, Therefore he will end up in jail.
The sentence would not make sense the other way around.
REMEMBER: Not all arguments will follow this logical order (premise - intermediate conclusion - final conclusion). You have to learn to classify them.
CR - Argument Structure Cheat Sheet:
Building blocks:
A PREMISE is a piece of evidence (fact or claim) that supports the author’s conclusion.
A FINAL CONCLUSION is the author’s main claim.
An INTERMEDIATE CONCLUSION is both a claim and a premise; it supports the final conclusion.
BACKGROUND information helps set the context for the argument.
A COUNTERPOINT or COUNTERPREMISE goes against the authors’ conclusion.
REMEMBER: Use the “Therefore/Because” test to find out which one is the intermediate and which the final conclusion.
BECAUSE A is true, THEREFORE B is true.
or
BECAUSE B is true, THEREFORE A is true.
Whichever one of the two makes more sense is the right way to classify the conclusion. The conclusion that in the right scenario follows the THEREFORE is the final and real conclusion.
CR - Manhattan GMAT Approach for Questions:
Steps to answering CR questions:
- Identify the question
- Deconstruct the argument (into building blocks, consider taking very cryptic/brief notes while you read)
- State the goal (depends on question type)
- Work from wrong to right
You are asked to find the “best” answer in CR questions. Therefore:
Strategy for step 4:
1. First go through answer choices and decide which
ones are definitely wrong.
2. compare remaining answers if more than one left.
REMEMBER: Compare remaining only once and
then move on, don't waste time.
CR - Taking down notes
Practice to take down very cryptic notes. Remember: it’s more about the process of taking down notes, not that you have to use your notes to answer the question. If it helps you dissect the argument better and understand it in real time if you take down notes then learn how to do that in very cryptic way so you don’t waste time. Avoid writing down full sentences.
A good note map will summarize the core of argument and include the premise and conclusion.
You can add your own thoughts as you note down, e.g. if you realize that an idea in the argument is missing or odd. But put those in brackets so you don’t confuse them for points in the actual argument.
This taking down notes also includes deconstruction the argument in terms of identifying the premies, conclusion etc. So, as you jot down notes also make note of the premise, conclusion.
Signs to indicate premise and conclusion:
Conclusion: C
Premise: P+
Continue to refine your note-taking and destructuring technique until it’s a really brief map that sums up main points in really short terms and shows premise and conclusion clearly.
CR - Strategy “Work from Wrong to Right”
When you get to answering the question first eliminate all questions that are definitely wrong. Because in GMAT verbal section you are asked for the “best” answer so this is a good strategy. If in the end there are two possible answers compare the two and pick the best one.
REMEMBER: after comparing the remaining answers once pick one and move on. Don’t waste time because if you don’t know it right away you just don’t know it.
CR - Strategy for Answering Question
You need to figure out who you write down the answer letters on scrap paper to cross off wrong answers as you go through them.
Use these symbols for each answer as you go through:
Definitely not: / (cross off like this)
Maybe: ~
Don’t know: ?
Right: O (circle around right answer)
CR - Structure-Based Questions
There are two main types of questions in structure-based questions:
A. Describe the Role (more common)
B. Describe the Argument
A. Describe the Role:
Task is to describe the role of the boldface portion (often stem will have word “role” in it). It could be a premise, conclusion, counterpremise, intermediate conclusion or background info in the argument. Or it could be a conclusion that goes against the author’s main conclusion.
How to identify question: Question will say word “boldface”
REMEMBER: Answer choices will often contain word “claim,” which is a synonym for “conclusion.” They will also often mention word “evidence” which can give you clues too. An evidence is a fact, it has to be a real evidence to deserve this label so make sure it does if you pick this answer choice.
Method for answering this type of question:
- classify the statements (usually two sentences) in boldface as one of these. You can use your notes as you did that there already:a) Conclusion (C)
b) Premise (P+)
c) Something Else (X) (e.g. counter-premise, background
info, acknowledgement of weakness of argument)
Also quickly decide if the two statements (mostly two statements in bold) are on one side, or two, i.e. if they support the same argument or not.
Before you go to answer choices, try to tell yourself what the right answer choice might be, if that’s possible.
- Look for answer choice that matches the classification you chose, so for instance, answer choice that that describes a premise first and then a conclusion (often mentioned as “claim”). If you know for instance that the second part of the boldface is a conclusion then you can eliminate all answers quickly that don’t describe a C for the second statement. Also, if you know for instance, that the two boldface statements are on two different sides of the argument, you can eliminate answers that describe two statements on the same side.
CAREFUL: Beware of these trap answers
- Often answers that are off by just one word, mostly at end of sentence (e.g. at end all of a sudden mention word “reject” instead of “establish” or support). Every part of answer has to match.
- Answers that are half-right, i.e. one description matches one boldface statement, but the other doesn’t.
B. Describe the Argument:
Task is to determine how a particular part of the text was constructed. Majority of questions offer two competing points of views in a dialog format. E.g. you might be ask how second person responds to first person’s argument. Minority of questions offer just one point of view and you have to determine how author of that argument develops his point of view.
Identify question:
Common question formulations:
- X responds to Y’s argument by…
- X challenges Y’s argument by…
- The author develops the argument by doing which of following? (if only one point of view)
IMPORTANT: Pay attention to what the statements really attack. Make sure the answer you pick doesn’t go too far.
Before you go to answer choices classify the statements to find premises, conclusions etc. As you do that ask yourself: Does second person flat-out contradict first person’s conclusion? Or just whether the conclusion is accurate? Does second person bring new info?
CAREFUL: Beware of these trap answers
- Answer is one word off.
- It’s tempting to assume the second person for instance attacks the first person’s conclusion, if that’s the type of situation that’s being described. BUT: Ask yourself if it’s really the conclusion the second person attacks, or something else.
CR - Assumption Questions Basics
Assumption is sth. that the author must believe to be true, though it doesn’t have to be true in the real word. Assumptions are not actually stated in the argument.
The core of an argument consists of the conclusion, the premise that lead to that conclusion, and the unstated assumption.
Most GMAT arguments contain multiple assumptions. They each make the argument more likely to be true. The argument depends on each assumption.
REMEMBER: Don’t mistake assumptions for something that make the conclusions ‘perfect’ or definitely true.
Strategy: Start brainstorming about assumptions as you read and before you look at answers but don’t waste too much time on this part. No more than 15 seconds total. Then just proceed to answers.
There are 5 types of assumption questions.
CR - Assumption Questions - Find the Assumption
“Find the Assumption” questions ask for assumptions the author must believe to be true to draw the conclusion.
REMEMBER: Don’t ask if the assumption is actually true, it only matters if the author believes it’s true.
Identify question: assumption questions usually have word “assumption” in them or they ask for new piece of premise that will help the conclusion to be more reasonably drawn.
Strategy:
- Identify question as assumption question.
- Deconstruct as always by finding premise, conclusion, counterpremise (if present)
- Briefly brainstorm assumptions.
- Work from wrong to right
Negation Technique: If you can’t decide between two different answer choices, try negating the answers. If the author must believe that answer to be true for the argument to work, then the answer should weaken the author’s conclusion if you turn the answer around to make the opposite point. Only use this technique if you are stuck with two questions, not for all question.
E.g.
Answer: Decreased spending on nonessential goods does not prompt news periodicals to forecast a recession.
Negated answer: Decreased spending on nonessential goods DOES prompt news periodicals to forecast a recession.
If the conclusion of the argument is along the lines of: people start spending less as a result of news periodicals starting to report on an upcoming recession, then this negated answer would weaken the conclusion because it basically means the author got it all wrong and that in reality decreased spending started first and then news periodicals picked it up.
Common Trap answers:
- Assumption questions ask for assumptions the author makes to draw the conclusion. A trap answer would be an answer that has no tie to the conclusion, i.e. doesn’t address it.
- Trap answers weaken argument, while an assumption should really make the argument stronger.
- Trap answers also tend to make irrelevant distinctions or comparisons.
CR - Strengthen and Weaken Argument Questions Basics
Strengthen Questions:
Ask you to find the answer that contains information that, if added to the existing argument, will make the conclusion more likely to be true or valid. It doesn’t have to be true, but if true, it strengthens the conclusion.
E.g.
Answer: The star quarterback on the defending champion team will miss the game due to an injury.
If the argument concluded that a specific team playing against the champion team is competitive and will win this match, then this answer would strengthen the conclusion because it makes the conclusion that the other team will win more valid.
Weaken Questions:
Ask you to find the answer that contains information that, if added to the existing argument, will make the conclusion unlikely to be true or invalid. It doesn’t have to be true, but if true, it weakens the conclusion.
E.g.
Answer: The players on the defending champion team train more than the players on any other team.
If the argument concluded that a specific team playing against the champion team is competitive and will win this match, then this answer would weaken the conclusion because it would make it questionable whether the other team will then definitely win.
The answers in strengthen and weaken questions can affect argument in three ways: strengthen, weaken, or do nothing to argument.
As with all CR questions the order of your work with this question type is:
- Identify question
- Deconstruct argument (find conclusion, premise)
- Brainstorm assumptions, gaps in argument (very brief)
- State goal very briefly for yourself in your head
- work from wrong to right
CR - Strengthen Argument Questions:
Ask you to find new piece of information that, if added to the argument, will make it somewhat more likely to be true.
Language in question stem:
- strengthen, support, or similar words like provide best basis, best reason for, provide justification for, provide evidence in favor of
- if true, or similar terms like if feasible
Common trap answers:
- answer does opposite, i.e. weakens argument
- answer doesn’t affect the conclusion, talks about something that may affect something in the premise of the argument but not the conclusion, which is what these questions are focused on. Or it talks about something different altogether.
“Fill in the Blank Questions”:
Most FitB questions are strengthen questions. (in rare cases they can be “find the assumption” or “inference” questions). The indication in FitB questions that it’s a strengthen question is usually to be found shortly before the blank space (usually through words “since” or “because”). In FitB questions, the correct answer reinforces or even restates a premise already given in he argument, mostly though it introduces a new premise that strengthens the argument. Some FitB questions also ask you to find the answer that strengthens the conclusion.
Alternative Wording signaling FitB Questions:
Instead of “since” or “because” these questions might use:
- …if (some claim is true), “it should be expected that”… (Inference question)
- …(in order for some claim to be true) “it must be shown that” (Inference question)
- …(something is true) “assuming that” (Find Assumption question)
CR - Weaken Argument Questions:
Ask you to find new piece of information that, if added to the argument, will make it somewhat less likely to be valid. Right answer attacks some assumption made by author.
Language in question stem:
- weaken, cast most serious doubt on, raise most serious doubt on, most strongly call into question, most seriously undermine claim, disadvantage to argument, damaging to argument, ill-suited, criticism of argument
- if true
Common trap answers:
- answer does opposite, i.e. strengthens argument
- answer doesn’t affect the argument/conclusion, talks about something that may affect something in the premise of the argument but not the conclusion, which is what these questions are focused on. Or it talks about something different altogether.
Except Questions:
This is a related question type but it’s a “negative” form. It will ask something like:
“Each of the following, if true, weakens the conclusion EXCEPT:”
The right answer might strengthen the argument, or have no impact on the argument.
A common trap in Except questions is that you might half-way through forget that you are looking for the one that doesn’t weaken and think you are looking for the one that weakens most. You could minimize that danger by labeling each answer that DOES weaken with a W as you go through the answer choices.
CR - Evaluate the Argument and Find the Flaw Questions - Basics
Only 1 or 2 questions in this category on GMAT. Like other assumption questions they also are about identifying an assumption.
CR - Evaluate the Argument Questions
In these questions you’re asked to find the answer that gives additional information that would help to evaluate the given argument, help determine whether it’s valid or invalid. The correct answer will propose additional information that would provide two paths depending on the outcome (with is not important here): it would either strengthen or weaken the argument.
Wording in stem to identify questions:
- evaluate or synonym
- determine or synonym
- language asking what would be “useful to know” or synonym
E.g. Which of the following must be studies in order to evaluate the argument.
Strategy:
- Find core, determine premises and conclusion
- briefly brainstorm assumptions
- Work from wrong to right, the correct answer should offer two paths, one that would make the argument stronger and one that would make it weaker.
Common trap answers:
- Information has no tie to argument
- Irrelevant distinction or comparison, focus on one part of the topic or issue mentioned in the argument that’s however not part of the conclusion or specific part we are looking at.
