Critical Reasoning Flashcards
Mrs. Mason is gifted with psychic powers that enable her to foretell future events. In the past, Mrs. Mason has predicted such actual events as the election of President Clinton, the stock market crash of 1987, and the St. Louis Cardinals’ 1982 World Series victory. These are just a few of Mrs. Mason’s accurate predictions.
The answer to which of the following questions would be most useful in evaluating the strength of the argument above?
A) What percentage of Mrs. Mason’s predictions has come true?
B) Could the election of President Reagan have been predicted without the help of psychic powers?
C) What is the actual mechanism by which Mrs. Mason’s psychic powers are supposed to operate?
D) How long before the events in question did Mrs. Mason make her accurate predictions?
E) Do most scientists accept the idea that the power to predict the future through psychic means really exists?
A
In Brazil, side-by-side comparisons of Africanized honeybees and the native honeybees have shown that the Africanized bees are far superior honey producers. Therefore, there is no reason to fear that domestic commercial honey production will decline in the United States if local honeybees are displaced by Africanized honeybees.
Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument EXCEPT:
(A) The honeybees native to Brazil are not of the same variety as those most frequently used in the commercial beekeeping industry in the United States.
(B) Commercial honey production is far more complicated and expensive with Africanized honeybees than it is with the more docile honeybees common in the United States.
(C) If Africanized honeybees replace local honeybees, certain types of ornamental trees will be less effectively pollinated.
(D) In the United States a significant proportion of the commercial honey supply comes from hobby beekeepers, many of whom are likely to abandon beekeeping with the influx of Africanized bees.
(E) The area of Brazil where the comparative study was done is far better suited to the foraging habits of the Africanized honeybees than are most areas of the United States.
C
It is more desirable to have some form of socialized medicine than a system of medical care relying on the private sector. Socialized medicine is more broadly accessible than is a private-sector system. In addition, since countries with socialized medicine have a lower infant mortality rate than do countries with a system relying entirely on the private sector, socialized medicine seems to be technologically superior.
Which one of the following best indicates a flaw in the argument about the technological superiority of socialized medicine?
(A) The lower infant mortality rate might be due to the system’s allowing greater access to medical care.
(B) There is no necessary connection between the economic system of socialism and technological achievement.
(C) Infant mortality is a reliable indicator of the quality of medical care for children.
(D) No list is presented of the countries whose infant mortality statistics are summarized under the two categories, “socialized” and “private-sector.”
(E) The argument presupposes the desirability of socialized medicine, which is what the argument seeks to establish.
A
Professor: If both parents have type O blood then their children can only have type O blood. This is a genetic law.
Student: But that’s not true.My father has type B blood and I have type O blood.
The student has most likely misinterpreted the professor’s remark to imply that
(A) only people with type O blood can have children with type O blood
(B) people with type O blood cannot have children with type B blood
(C) people with type B blood invariably have children with type O blood
(D) what is true of one child in the family must also be true of all children in that family
(E) if both parents have type B blood, then their child will have type B blood
A
Five years ago, during the first North American outbreak of the cattle disease CXC, the death rate from the disease was 5 percent of all reported cases, whereas today the corresponding figure is over 18 percent. It is clear, therefore, that during these past 5 years, CXC has increased in virulence.
Which one of the following, if true, most substantially weakens the argument?
(A) Many recent cattle deaths that have actually been caused by CXC have been mistakenly attributed to another disease that mimics the symptoms of CXC.
(B) During the first North American outbreak of the disease, many of the deaths reported to have been caused by CXC were actually due to other causes.
(C) An inoculation program against CXC was recently begun after controlled studies showed inoculation to be 70 percent effective in preventing serious cases of the illness.
(D) Since the first outbreak, farmers have learned to treat mild cases of CXC and no longer report them to veterinarians or authorities.
(E) Cattle that have contracted and survived CXC rarely contract the disease a second time.
D
Essayist: It is much less difficult to live an enjoyable life if one is able to make lifestyle choices that accord with one’s personal beliefs and then see those choices accepted by others. It is possible for people to find this kind of acceptance by choosing friends and associates who share many of their personal beliefs. Thus, no one should be denied the freedom to choose the people with whom he or she will associate.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the essayist’s argument?
(A) No one should be denied the freedom to make lifestyle choices that accord with his or her personal beliefs.
(B) One should associate with at least some people who share many of one’s personal beliefs.
(C) If having a given freedom could make it less difficult for someone to live an enjoyable life, then no one should be denied that freedom.
(D) No one whose enjoyment of life depends, at least in part, on friends and associates who share many of the same personal beliefs should be deliberately prevented from having such friends and associates.
(E) One may choose for oneself the people with whom one will associate, if doing so could make it easier to live an enjoyable life
C
D
“DNA fingerprinting” is a recently-introduced biochemical procedure that uses a pattern derived from a person’s genetic material to match a suspect’s genetic material against that of a specimen from a crime scene. Proponents have claimed astronomically high odds against obtaining a match by chance alone. These odds are based on an assumption that there is independence between the different characteristics represented by a single pattern.
Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the claim of the proponents of DNA fingerprinting?
(A) The large amount of genetic material that people share with all other people and with other animals is not included in the DNA fingerprinting procedure.
(B) There is a generally accepted theoretical basis for interpreting the patterns produced by the procedure.
(C) In the whole population there are various different subgroups, within each of which certain sets of genetic characteristics are shared.
(D) The skill required of laboratory technicians performing the DNA fingerprinting procedure is not extraordinary.
(E) In the investigation of certain genetic diseases, the techniques used in DNA fingerprinting have traced the transmission of the diseases among the living members of very large families.
C
People who browse the web for medical information often cannot discriminate between scientifically valid information and quackery. Much of the quackery is particularly appealing to readers with no medical background because it is usually written more clearly than scientific papers. Thus, people who rely on the web when attempting to diagnose their medical conditions are likely to do themselves more harm than good.
Which one of the following is an assumption the argument requires?
(A) People who browse the web for medical information typically do so in an attempt to diagnose their medical conditions.
(B) People who attempt to diagnose their medical conditions are likely to do themselves more harm than good unless they rely exclusively on scientifically valid information.
(C) People who have sufficient medical knowledge to discriminate between scientifically valid information and quackery will do themselves no harm if they rely on the web when attempting to diagnose their medical conditions.
(D) Many people who browse the web assume that information is not scientifically valid unless it is clearly written.
(E) People attempting to diagnose their medical conditions will do themselves more harm than good only if they rely on quackery instead of scientifically valid information
B
A tree’s age can be determined by counting the annual growth rings in its trunk. Each ring represents one year, and the ring’s thickness reveals the relative amount of rainfall that year. Archaeologists successfully used annual rings to determine the relative ages of ancient tombs at Pazyryk. Each tomb was constructed from freshly cut logs, and the tombs’ builders were constrained by tradition to use only logs from trees growing in the sacred Pazyryk Valley.
Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the archaeologists’ success in using annual rings to establish the relative ages of the tombs at the Pazyryk site?
(A) The Pazyryk tombs were all robbed during ancient times, but breakage of the tombs’ seals allowed the seepage of water, which soon froze permanently, thereby preserving the tombs’ remaining artifacts.
(B) The Pazyryk Valley, surrounded by extremely high mountains, has a distinctive yearly pattern of rainfall, and so trees growing in the Pazyryk Valley have annual rings that are quite distinct from trees growing in nearby valleys.
(C) Each log in the Pazyryk tombs has among its rings a distinctive sequence of twelve annual rings representing six drought years followed by three rainy years and three more drought years.
(D) The archaeologists determined that the youngest tree used in any of the tombs was 90 years old and that the oldest tree was 450 years old.
(E) All of the Pazyryk tombs contained cultural artifacts that can be dated to roughly 2300 years ago.
C
“Physicalists” expect that ultimately all mental functions will be explainable in neurobiological terms. Achieving this goal requires knowledge of neurons and their basic functions, a knowledge of how neurons interact, and a delineation of the psychological faculties to be explained. At present, there is a substantial amount of fundamental knowledge about the basic functions of neurons, and the scope and character of such psychological capacities as visual perception and memory are well understood. Thus, as the physicalists claim, mental functions are bound to receive explanations in neurobiological terms in the near future.
Which one of the following indicates an error in the reasoning in the passage?
(A) The conclusion contradicts the claim of the physicalists.
(B) The passage fails to describe exactly what is currently known about the basic functions of neurons.
(C) The word “neurobiological” is used as though it had the same meaning as the word “mental.”
(D) The argument does not indicate whether it would be useful to explain mental functions in neurobiological terms.
(E) The passage does not indicate that any knowledge has been achieved about how neurons interact.
B
If the public library shared by the adjacent towns of Redville and Glenwood were relocated from the library’s current, overcrowded building in central Redville to a larger, available building in central Glenwood, the library would then be within walking distance of a larger number of library users. That is because there are many more people living in central Glenwood than in central Redville, and people generally will walk to the library only if it is located close to their homes.
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
(A) Many more people who currently walk to the library live in central Redville than in central Glenwood.
(B) The number of people living in central Glenwood who would use the library if it were located there is smaller than the number of people living in central Redville who currently use the library.
(C) The number of people using the public library would continue to increase steadily if the library were moved to Glenwood.
(D) Most of the people who currently either drive to the library or take public transportation to reach it would continue to do so if the library were moved to central Glenwood.
(E) Most of the people who currently walk to the library would remain library users if the library were relocated to central Glenwood.
B
The crux of creativity resides in the ability to manufacture variations on a theme. If we look at the history of science, for instance, we see that every idea is built upon a thousand related ideas. Careful analysis leads us to understand that what we choose to call a new theme or a new discovery is itself always and without exception some sort of variation, on a deep level, of previous themes.
If all of the statements in the passage are true, each of the following must also be true EXCEPT:
A) A lack of ability to manufacture a variation on a previous theme connotes a lack of creativity
B) No scientific idea is entirely independent of all other ideas.
C) Careful analysis of a specific variation can reveal previous themes of which it is a variation.
D) All great scientific discoverers have been able to manufacture a variation on a theme.
E) Some new scientific discoveries do not represent, on a deep level, a variation on previous themes
E
More than a year ago, the city announced that police would crack down on illegally parked cars and that resources would be diverted from writing speeding tickets to ticketing illegally parked cars. But no crackdown has taken place. The police chief claims that resources have had to be diverted from writing speeding tickets to combating the city’s staggering drug problem. Yet the police are still writing as many speeding tickets as ever. Therefore, the excuse about resources being tied up in fighting drug-related crime simply is not true.
The conclusion in the passage depends on the assumption that
(A) every member of the police force is qualified to work on combating the city’s drug problem
(B) drug-related crime is not as serious a problem for the city as the police chief claims it is
(C) writing speeding tickets should be as important a priority for the city as combating drug-related crime
(D) the police could be cracking down on illegally parked cars and combating the drug problem without having to reduce writing speeding tickets
(E) the police cannot continue writing as many speeding tickets as ever while diverting resources to combating drug-related crime
E
The formation of hurricanes that threaten the United States mainland is triggered by high atmospheric winds off the western coast of Africa.When abundant rain falls in sub-Saharan Africa, hurricanes afterward hit the United States mainland with particular frequency. Therefore, the abundant rains must somehow promote the ability of the winds to form hurricanes.
Which one of the following arguments contains a flaw that is most similar to one in the argument above?
(A) People who exercise vigorously tend to sleep well. Therefore, people who exercise vigorously tend to be healthy.
(B) Cars drive faster on long city blocks than on short city blocks. Long blocks are thus more dangerous for pedestrians than short blocks.
(C) Many people who later become successful entrepreneurs played competitive sports in college. Therefore, playing competitive sports must enhance a person’s entrepreneurial ability.
(D) The blossoms of the chicory plant close up in full sun. Therefore, the chicory plant’s blossoms must open up in the dark.
(E) Events in Eastern Europe can affect the political mood in Central America. Therefore, liberalization in Eastern Europe will lead to liberalization in Central America.
E
Most people in the US view neither big nor small business as particularly efficient or dynamic and regard both as providing consumers with fairly priced goods and services. However, most people consistently perceive small business as a force for good in society, whereas big business is perceived as socially responsible only in times of prosperity.
The statements above, if true, would provide the strongest support for which one of the following hypotheses?
(A) Most people in the United States give little thought to the value of business to society.
(B) If big business were more efficient, it would be perceived more favorably by the public generally.
(C) If small business were regarded as being more dynamic, it, too would receive strongly favorable ratings only in times of general prosperity.
D) Even if people did not regard big business as providing consumers with value for their money, they would still regard it as socially responsible in times of general prosperity.
(E) Many people in the United States regard the social responsibility of big business as extending beyond providing consumers with fairly priced goods and services
E
It has been claimed that an action is morally good only if it benefits another person and was performed with that intention; whereas an action that harms another person is morally bad either if such harm was intended or if reasonable forethought would have shown that the action was likely to cause harm.
Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited above?
(A) Pamela wrote a letter attempting to cause trouble between Edward and his friend; this action of Pamela’s was morally bad, even though the letter, in fact, had an effect directly opposite from the one intended.
(B) In order to secure a promotion, Jeffrey devoted his own time to resolving a backlog of medical benefits claims; Jeffrey’s action was morally good since it alone enabled Sara’s claim to be processed in time for her to receive much-needed treatment.
(C) Intending to help her elderly neighbor by clearing his walkway after a snowstorm, Teresa inadvertently left ice on his steps; because of this exposed ice, her neighbor had a bad fall, thus showing that morally good actions can have bad consequences.
(D) Marilees, asked by a homeless man for food, gave the man her own sandwich; however, because the man tried to talk while he was eating the sandwich, it caused him to choke, and thus Marilees unintentionally performed a morally bad action.
(E) Jonathan agreed to watch his three-year-old niece while she played but, becoming engrossed in conversation, did not see her run into the street where she was hit by a bicycle; even though he intended no harm, Jonathan’s action was morally bad.
E
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the introduction of new therapeutic agents into the marketplace. Consequently, it plays a critical role in improving health care in the United States.While it is those in the academic and government research communities who engage in the long process of initial discovery and clinical testing of new therapeutic agents, it is the FDA’s role and responsibility to facilitate the transfer of new discoveries from the laboratory to the marketplace. Only after the transfer can important new therapies help patients.
Which one of the following statements can be inferred from the passage?
(A) The FDA is responsible for ensuring that any therapeutic agent that is marketed is then regulated.
(B) Before new therapeutic agents reach the marketplace they do not help patients.
(C) The research community is responsible for the excessively long testing period for new drugs, not the FDA.
(D) The FDA should work more closely with researchers to ensure that the quality of therapeutic agents is maintained.
(E) If a new medical discovery has been transferred from the laboratory to the marketplace, it will help patients.
B
The great medieval universities had no administrators, yet they endured for centuries. Our university has a huge administrative staff, and we are in serious financial difficulties. Therefore, we should abolish the positions and salaries of the administrators to ensure the longevity of the university.
Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning that most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the argument above?
(A) No airplane had jet engines before 1940, yet airplanes had been flying since 1903. Therefore, jet engines are not necessary for the operation of airplanes.
(B) The novelist’s stories began to be accepted for publication soon after she started using a computer to write them. You have been having trouble getting your stories accepted for publication, and you do not use a computer. To make sure your stories are accepted for publication, then, you should write them with the aid of a computer.
(C) After doctors began using antibiotics, the number of infections among patients dropped drastically. Now, however, resistant strains of bacteria cannot be controlled by standard antibiotics. Therefore, new methods of control are needed.
(D) A bicycle should not be ridden without a helmet. Since a good helmet can save the rider’s life, a helmet should be considered the most important piece of bicycling equipment.
(E) The great cities of the ancient world were mostly built along waterways. Archaeologists searching for the remains of such cities should therefore try to determine where major rivers used to run.
B
Archaeologist: The mosaics that were removed from Zeugma, the ancient city now flooded by the runoff from Turkey’s Birecik Dam, should have been left there. We had all the information about them that we needed to draw archaeological conclusions, and future archaeologists studying the site, who may not have access to our records, might be misled by their absence.
Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning in the archaeologist’s argument?
(A) The only considerations that bear upon the question of whether the mosaics should have been removed are archaeological.
(B) Archaeologists studying a site can tell whether or not that site had been flooded at some time.
(C) The materials used in the construction of a mosaic are readily apparent when the mosaic is examined in its original location.
(D) Archaeological sites from which artifacts have been removed rarely mislead archaeologists who later study the site.
(E) The removal of artifacts from archaeological sites rarely has any environmental impact
A
B
In the United States proven oil reserves — the amount of oil considered extractable from known fields— are at the same level as they were ten years ago. Yet over this same period no new oil fields of any consequence have been discovered, and the annual consumption of domestically produced oil has increased.
Which one of the following, if true, best reconciles the discrepancy described above?
(A) Over the past decade the annual consumption of imported oil has increased more rapidly than that of domestic oil in the United States.
(B) Conservation measures have lowered the rate of growth of domestic oil consumption from what it was a decade ago.
(C) Oil exploration in the United States has slowed due to increased concern over the environmental impact of such exploration.
(D) The price of domestically produced oil has fallen substantially over the past decade.
(E) Due to technological advances over the last decade, much oil previously considered unextractable is now considered extractable
E
The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is certainly imprecise, because we are not sure how different from us something might be and still count as “intelligent life.” Yet we cannot just decide to define “intelligent life” in some more precise way since it is likely that we will find and recognize intelligent life elsewhere in the universe only if we leave our definitions open to new, unimagined possibilities.
The argument can most reasonably be interpreted as an objection to which one of the following claims?
(A) The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is one that will never correctly be answered.
(B) Whether or not there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, our understanding of intelligent life is limited.
(C) The question about the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe must be made more precise if we hope to answer it correctly.
(D) The question whether there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is so imprecise as to be meaningless.
(E) The question whether there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is one we should not spend our time trying to answer.
C
A medical journal used a questionnaire survey to determine whether a particular change in its format would increase its readership. Sixty-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire supported that change. On the basis of this outcome, the decision was made to introduce the new format.
Which one of the following, if it were determined to be true, would provide the best evidence that the journal’s decision will have the desired effect?
(A) Of the readers who received questionnaires, 90% returned them.
(B) Other journals have based format changes on survey results.
(C) The percentage of surveyed readers who like the format change was almost the same as the percentage of the entire potential readership who would like the format change.
(D) It was determined that the new format would be less costly than the old format.
(E) 90% readers who were dissatisfied with the old format and only 50% of the readers who liked the old format returned their questionnaires
C
Substances with similar scents often have vastly different molecular structures. The scents of marzipan and cyanide, for example, both contain strong hints of almond. The molecular structures of the substances, however, make them appropriate for nearly opposite uses: marzipan is often found in gourmet desserts, and cyanide is a powerful poison.
Which of the following conclusions can most reasonably be drawn from information in the passage above?
(A) Molecular structures of substances with similar scents are always vastly different.
(B) Molecular structures of unknown substances can often be predicted based on their scents.
(C) Scents of unknown substances can not be accurately predicted based only on their molecular structure.
(D) Scents of poisonous substances are usually similar to scents of non-poisonous foods.
(E) Marzipan and cyanide have similar scents, and can therefore be assumed to contain similar elements
C
A population of game ducks at a western lake contains 55 males to every 45 females, while a population of game ducks at an eastern lake contains 65 males for every 35 females. Among those ducks that have not yet bred there are only slightly more males than females, but among older ducks the number of males greatly exceeds the number of females. Because there are appreciably more males among adult ducks than among young ducks, we can infer that the greater the disparity in overall sex ratios, the greater the percentage of older male ducks in the population.
Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage?
(A) The population of game ducks at the western lake contains a lower % adult males than the population at the eastern lake.
(B) The population of game ducks at the eastern lake contains a higher % nonadult game ducks than the population at the western lake contains.
(C) The total number of male game ducks is higher in the eastern lake’s population than in the western lake’s population.
(D) The number of nonadult ducks hatched in a breeding season is higher in the eastern lake’s population than in the western lake’s population.
(E) Adult female game ducks outnumber nonadult female game ducks in the eastern lake’s population
A
Philosopher: To explain the causes of cultural phenomena, a social scientist needs data about several societies: one cannot be sure, for example, that a given political structure is brought about only by certain ecological or climatic factors unless one knows that there are no similarly structured societies not subject to those factors, and no societies that, though subject to those factors, are not so structured.
The claim that to explain the causes of cultural phenomena, a social scientist needs data about several societies plays which one of the following roles in the philosopher’s reasoning?
(A) It describes a problem that the philosopher claims is caused by the social scientist’s need for certainty.
(B) It is a premise used to support a general theoretical claim about the nature of cause and effect relationships.
(C) It is a general hypothesis that is illustrated with an example showing that there is a causal relationship between political structures and environmental conditions.
(D) It is a dilemma that, it is argued, is faced by every social scientist because of the difficulty of determining whether a given cultural phenomenon is the cause or the effect of a given factor.
(E) It is a claim that the philosopher attempts to justify by appeal to the requirements for establishing the existence of one kind of causal relationship.
E
The deviation of atomic numbers from mass numbers is given as a number that directly corresponds to the severity of the reactions of an element’s isotopes to nuclear fission and fusion. Nuclear fission produces energy in elements heavier than iron, and absorbs energy in elements lighter than iron.
If nuclear fusion has an effect on isotopes that is equal to the negative value of fission’s effect on the isotope, then it must be true that
A elements lighter than iron never produce energy
B nuclear fission and fusion do not affect iron’s isotopes
C the deviation of an element’s atomic number from its mass number is a constant
D the deviation of iron’s atomic number from its mass number is zero
E elements heavier than iron do not respond to nuclear fusion
C
The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is certainly imprecise, because we are not sure how different from us something might be and still count as “intelligent life.” Yet we cannot just decide to define “intelligent life” in some more precise way since it is likely that we will find and recognize intelligent life elsewhere in the universe only if we leave our definitions open to new, unimagined possibilities.
The passage, if seen as an objection to an antecedent claim, challenges that claim by
(A) showing the claim to be irrelevant to the issue at hand
(B) citing examples that fail to fit a proposed definition of “intelligent life”
(C) claiming that “intelligent life” cannot be adequately defined
(D) arguing that the claim, if acted on, would be counterproductive
(E) maintaining that the claim is not supported by the available evidence
D
A survey of alumni of the class of 1960 at Aurora University yielded puzzling results.When asked to indicate their academic rank, half of the respondents reported that they were in the top quarter of the graduating class in 1960.
Which one of the following most helps account for the apparent contradiction above?
(A) A disproportionately large number of highranking alumni responded to the survey.
(B) Few, if any, respondents were mistaken about their class rank.
(C) Not all the alumni who were actually in the top quarter responded to the survey.
(D) Almost all of the alumni who graduated in 1960 responded to the survey.
(E) Academic rank at Aurora University was based on a number of considerations in addition to average grades.
A
Streptococcus mutans, the bacteria that causes tooth decay, is transmitted almost exclusively from mother to child, which allows it to be traced back thousands of years via its DNA to one of several distinct lineages. This would not be possible if it were transmitted more easily from person to person.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage above?
A Mothers can be blamed for tooth decay in children.
B Streptococcus mutans can be classified according to lineage.
C If it were transmitted from father to child, streptococcus mutans would not be traceable.
D Bacteria cannot be traced if it has no DNA.
E Tooth decay only occurs among humans
B
Clean-burning coal power plants represent an improvement over traditional coal power plants because they are more efficient at capturing greenhouse gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere. Although the large coal deposits of the Eastern United States make coal an economically cheap resource, the environmental damage caused by current methods of extraction makes coal an environmentally unwise choice as an energy source.
If the statements above are true, which of the following conclusions can be most properly drawn about clean-burning coal power plants?
(A) Clean-burning coal power plants can prevent one type of environmental damage while indirectly causing another.
(B) Environmental groups will protest the construction of more clean-burning coal power plants because they capture insufficient amounts of greenhouse gases.
(C) In the long-term, the money saved by using inexpensive coal as an energy source will outweigh the cost of building more clean-burning power plants.
(D) Most new clean-burning coal power plants will be built in the Eastern United States, where supplies of cheap coal are plentiful.
(E) Most traditional coal power plants, especially those in the Eastern United States, will be demolished to make room for newer, clean-burning plants
A
“If the forest continues to disappear at its present pace, the koala will approach extinction,” said the biologist. “So all that is needed to save the koala is to stop deforestation,” said the politician.
Which one of the following statements is consistent with the biologist’s claim but not with the politician’s claim?
(A) Deforestation continues and the koala becomes extinct.
(B) Deforestation is stopped and the koala becomes extinct.
(C) Reforestation begins and the koala survives.
(D) Deforestation is slowed and the koala survives.
(E) Deforestation is slowed and the koala approaches extinction.
B
Paleomycologists, scientists who study ancient forms of fungi, are invariably acquainted with the scholarly publications of all other paleomycologists. Professor Mansour is acquainted with the scholarly publications of Professor DeAngelis, who is a paleomycologist. Therefore, Professor Mansour must also be a paleomycologist.
The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?
(A) When a flight on Global Airlines is delayed, all connecting Global Airlines flights are also delayed so that the passengers can make their connections. Since Frieda’s connecting flight on Global was delayed, her first flight must have also been a delayed Global Airlines flight.
(B) Any time that one of Global Airlines’ local ticket agents misses a shift, the other agents on that shift need to work harder than usual. Since none of Global’s local ticket agents missed a shift last week, the airline’s local ticket agents did not have to work harder than usual last week.
(C) Any time the price of fuel decreases, Global Airlines’ expenses decrease and its income is unaffected. The price of fuel decreased several times last year. Therefore, Global Airlines must have made a profit last year.
(D) All employees of Global Airlines can participate in its retirement plan after they have been with the company a year or more. Gavin has been with Global Airlines for three years. We can therefore be sure that he participates in Global’s retirement plan.
(E) Whenever a competitor of Global Airlines reduces its fares, Global must follow suit or lose passengers. Global carried more passengers last year than it did the year before. Therefore, Global must have reduced its fares last year to match reductions in its competitors’ fares.
A
The press reports on political campaigns these days as if they were chess games. One candidate’s campaign advisor makes a move; the other candidate’s advisor makes a countermove. The press then reports on the campaign advisors and not on the candidates. The losers in this chess game are the voters. They are deprived of the information they need to make informed decisions because the press is ignoring substantive policy issues and reporting only on the process of the campaign. It is clear that the campaign advisors should stay out of the limelight and let the press report on the most revealing positions on substantive issues the candidates have taken.
Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument in the passage depends?
(A) Chess is the most appropriate analogy to reporting on political campaigns.
(B) The candidates in the election are taking positions on substantive policy issues.
(C) How the press reports politics determines the substantive issues in the campaign.
(D) The voters are not paying enough attention to the election to be able to make informed decisions.
(E) There is no difference between reporting on the political process and reporting on substantive issues.
B
A
Armchair anthropologists of the Victorian Era rarely visited the lands in whose cultures they proclaimed themselves experts, and were as likely as not to call the inhabitants “savages.” By contrast, contemporary anthropologists, who are not taken seriously unless they have lived for a time among the people they study, are likely to use the more enlightened term “indigenous people.”
The author’s assertion about the superiority of contemporary anthropologists rests on which of the following assumptions about the word enlightened?
A. Victorian Era anthropologists often considered themselves enlightened even though they had never lived among the cultures they studied.
B. To be enlightened requires spending time among the people being studied.
C. The goal of contemporary anthropology is to become enlightened.
D. A person who has been enlightened can not, by definition, be called a savage.
E. Anthropologists must be enlightened before they are properly prepared to spend time among the people they study.
D
M: It is almost impossible to find a person between the ages of 85 and 90 who primarily uses the left hand.
Q: Seventy to ninety years ago, however, children were punished for using their left hands to eat or to write and were forced to use their right hands.
Q’s response serves to counter any use by M of the evidence about 85 to 90 year olds in support of which one of the following hypotheses?
(A) Being born right-handed confers a survival advantage.
(B) Societal attitudes toward handedness differ at different times.
(C) Forcing a person to switch from a preferred hand is harmless.
(D) Handedness is a product of both genetic predisposition and social pressures.
(E) Physical habits learned in school often persist in old age.
A
Jones: Prehistoric wooden tools found in South America have been dated to 13,000 years ago. Although scientists attribute these tools to peoples whose ancestors first crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska, this cannot be correct. In order to have reached a site so far south, these peoples must have been migrating southward well before 13,000 years ago. However, no such tools dating to before 13,000 years ago have been found anywhere between Alaska and South America.
Smith: Your evidence is inconclusive. Those tools were found in peat bogs, which are rare in the Americas. Wooden tools in soils other than peat bogs usually decompose within only a few years.
Smith responds to Jones by
(A) citing several studies that invalidate Jones’s conclusion
(B) accusing Jones of distorting the scientists’ position
(C) disputing the accuracy of the supporting evidence cited by Jones
(D) showing that Jones’s evidence actually supports the denial of Jones’s conclusion
(E) challenging an implicit assumption in Jones’s argument
E
Public reports by national commissions, governors’ conferences, and leadership groups have stressed the great need for better understanding of international affairs by the citizenry. If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, the need is undeniable. If there is such a need for the citizenry to have a better understanding of international affairs, then all of our new teachers must be prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation.
If all of the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true?
(A) If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, then new teachers must be prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation.
(B) If new teachers are prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation, then the country will remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness.
(C) If there is better understanding of international affairs by the citizenry, then the country will remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness.
(D) If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, then there is no need for the citizenry to have a better understanding of international affairs.
(E) Public reports from various groups and commissions have stressed the need for a more international orientation in the
education of teachers.
A
The view that every person is concerned exclusively with her or his own self-interest implies that government by consent is impossible. Thus, social theorists who believe that people are concerned only with their self‑interest evidently believe that aspiring to democracy is futile, since democracy is not possible in the absence of government by consent.
The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
(A) infers merely from the fact of someone’s holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief
(B) infers that because something is true of a group of people, it is true of each individual member of the group
(C) infers that because something is true of each individual person belonging to a group, it is true of the group as a whole
(D) attempts to discredit a theory by discrediting those who espouse that theory
(E) fails to consider that, even if an argument’s conclusion is false, some of the assumptions used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true
A
With the exception of Professor Kirschner, all faculty in the History department are either tenured or under thirty-five.
From which of the following can the statement above most correctly be inferred?
A Professor Kirschner is the only professor in the History department who is not tenured.
B If a professor in the History department is under thirty-five or tenured, then he or she is not Professor Kirchner.
C Professor Kirchner is the only professor in the History department who is over thirty-five and lacks tenure.
D If a professor is in the History department, then he or she is either tenured or under thirty-five, or is Professor Kirschner.
E Professor Kirschner cannot be a member of the History department.
D
Modern physicians often employ laboratory tests, in addition to physical examinations, in order to diagnose diseases accurately. Insurance company regulations that deny coverage for certain laboratory tests therefore decrease the quality of medical care provided to patients.
Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above?
(A) Physical examinations and the uncovered laboratory tests together provide a more accurate diagnosis of many diseases than do physical examinations alone.
(B) Many physicians generally oppose insurance company regulations that, in order to reduce costs, limit the use of laboratory tests.
(C) Many patients who might benefit from the uncovered laboratory tests do not have any form of health insurance.
(D) There are some illnesses that experienced physicians can diagnose accurately from physical examination alone.
(E) Laboratory tests are more costly to perform than are physical examinations.
A
When 100 people who have not used cocaine are tested for cocaine use, on average only 5 will test positive. By contrast, of every 100 people who have used cocaine 99 will test positive. Thus, when a randomly chosen group of people is tested for cocaine use, the vast majority of those who test positive will be people who have used cocaine.
A reasoning error in the argument is that the argument:
(A) attempts to infer a value judgment from purely factual premises
(B) attributes to every member of the population the properties of the average member of the population
(C) fails to take into account what proportion of the population have used cocaine
(D) ignores the fact that some cocaine users do not test positive
(E) advocates testing people for cocaine use when there is no reason to suspect that they have used cocaine
C
Zoologist: Every domesticated large mammal species now in existence was domesticated thousands of years ago. Since those days, people undoubtedly tried innumerable times to domesticate each of the wild large mammal species that seemed worth domesticating. Clearly, therefore, most wild large mammal species in existence today either would be difficult to domesticate or would not be worth domesticating.
The zoologist’s argument requires the assumption that
(A) in spite of the difficulties encountered, at one time or another people have tried to domesticate each wild large mammal species
(B) it is not much easier today to domesticate wild large mammal species than it was in the past
(C) not all of the large mammal species that were domesticated in the past are still in existence
(D) the easier it is to domesticate a wild large mammal species, the more worthwhile it is to do so
(E) of all the domesticated large mammal species in existence today, the very first to be domesticated were the easiest to domesticate
B
People who take what others regard as a ridiculous position should not bother to say, “I mean every word!” For either their position truly is ridiculous, in which case insisting that they are serious about it only exposes them to deeper embarrassment, or else their position has merit, in which case they should meet disbelief with rational argument rather than with assurances of their sincerity.
Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above?
(A) A practice that has been denounced as a poor practice should not be defended on the grounds that “this is how we have always done it.” If the practice is a poor one, so much the worse that it has been extensively used; if it is not a poor one, there must be a better reason for engaging in it than inertia.
(B) People who are asked why they eat some of the unusual foods they eat should not answer, “because that is what I like.” This sort of answer will sound either naive or evasive and thus will satisfy no one.
(C) People whose taste in clothes is being criticized should not reply, “Every penny I spent on these clothes I earned honestly.” For the issue raised by the critics is not how the money was come by but rather whether it was spent wisely.
(D) Scholars who champion unpopular new theories should not assume that the widespread rejection of their ideas shows that they “must be on the right track.” The truth is that few theories of any consequence are either wholly right or wholly wrong and thus there is no substitute for patient work in ascertaining which parts are right.
(E) People who set themselves goals that others denounce as overly ambitious do little to silence their critics if they say, “I can accomplish this if anyone can.” Rather, those people should either admit that their critics are right or not dignify the criticism with any reply.
A
Computer scientist: For several decades, the number of transistors on new computer microchips, and hence the microchips’ computing speed, has doubled about every 18 months. However, from the mid-1990s into the next decade, each such doubling in a microchip’s computing speed was accompanied by a doubling in the cost of producing that microchip.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the computer scientist’s statements?
(A) The only effective way to double the computing speed of computer microchips is to increase the number of transistors per microchip.
(B) From the mid-1990s into the next decade, there was little if any increase in the retail cost of computers as a result of the increased number of transistors on microchips.
(C) For the last several decades, computer engineers have focused on increasing the computing speed of computer microchips without making any attempt to control the cost of producing them.
(D) From the mid-1990s into the next decade, a doubling in the cost of fabricating new computer microchips accompanied each doubling in the number of transistors on those microchips.
(E) It is unlikely that engineers will ever be able to increase the computing speed of microchips without also increasing the cost of producing them
D
A recent poll showed that almost half of the city’s residents believe that Mayor Walker is guilty of ethics violations. Surprisingly, however, 52% of those surveyed judged Walker’s performance as mayor to be good or excellent, which is no lower than it was before anyone accused him of ethics violations.
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the surprising fact stated above?
(A) Almost all of the people who believe that Walker is guilty of ethics violations had thought, even before he was accused of those violations, that his performance as mayor was poor.
(B) In the time since Walker was accused of ethics violations, there has been an increase in the percentage of city residents who judge the performance of Walker’s political opponents to be good or excellent.
(C) About a fifth of those polled did not know that Walker had been accused of ethics violations.
(D) Walker is currently up for reelection, and anticorruption groups in the city have expressed support for Walker’s opponent.
(E) Walker has defended himself against the accusations by arguing that the alleged ethics violations were the result of honest mistakes by his staff members
A
A work of architecture, if it is to be both inviting and functional for public use, must be unobtrusive, taking second place to the total environment. Modern architects, plagued by egoism, have violated this precept. They have let their strong personalities take over their work, producing buildings that are not functional for public use.
Which one of the statements below follows logically from the statements in the passage?
(A) Unobtrusive architecture is both inviting and functional.
(B) Modern architects who let their strong personalities take over their work produce buildings that are not unobtrusive.
(C) An architect with a strong personality cannot produce buildings that function well for the public.
(D) A work of architecture that takes second place to the environment functions well for public use.
(E) A work of architecture cannot simultaneously express its architect’s personality and be functional for public use.
B
Like a number of other articles, Ian Raghnall’s article relied on a recent survey in which over half the couples applying for divorces listed “money” as a major problem in their marriages. Raghnall’s conclusion from the survey data is that financial problems are the major problem in marriages and an important factor contributing to the high divorce rate. Yet couples often express other types of marital frustrations in financial terms. Despite appearances, the survey data do not establish that financial problems are the major problem in contemporary marriages.
Which one of the following sentences best expresses the main point of the passage?
(A) Financial problems are not an important factor contributing to the divorce rate.
(B) Marital problems are more easily solved by marriage counselors than by married couples on their own.
(C) The conclusion drawn in Raghnall’s article is inadequately justified.
(D) Over half the couples applying for divorces listed money as a major problem in their marriages.
(E) Many articles wrongly claim that financial problems are the major factor contributing to the divorce rate.
C
Fares on the city-run public buses in Greenville are subsidized by city tax revenues, but among the beneficiaries of the low fares are many people who commute from outside the city to jobs in Greenville. Some city councilors argue that city taxes should be used primarily to benefit the people who pay them, and therefore that bus fares should be raised enough to cover the cost of the service.
Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument advanced by the city councilors EXCEPT:
(A) Many businesses whose presence in the city is beneficial to the city’s taxpayers would relocate outside the city if public-transit fare were more expensive.
(B) By providing commuters with economic incentives to drive to work, higher transit fares would worsen air pollution in Greenville and increase the cost of maintaining the city’s streets.
(C) Increasing transit fares would disadvantage those residents of the city whose low incomes make them exempt from city taxes, and all city councilors agree that these residents should be able to take advantage of city-run services.
(D) Voters in the city, many of whom benefit from the low transit fares, are strongly opposed to increasing local taxes.
(E) People who work in Greenville and earn wages above the nationally mandated minimum all pay the city wage tax of 5 percent
D
Whenever a major political scandal erupts before an election and voters blame the scandal on all parties about equally, virtually all incumbents, from whatever party, seeking reelection are returned to office. However, when voters blame such a scandal on only one party, incumbents from that party are likely to be defeated by challengers from other parties. The proportion of incumbents who seek reelection is high and remarkably constant from election to election.
If the voters’ reactions are guided by a principle, which one of the following principles would best account for the contrast in reactions described above?
(A) Whenever one incumbent is responsible for one major political scandal and another incumbent is responsible for another, the consequences for the two incumbents should be the same.
(B) When a major political scandal is blamed on incumbents from all parties, that judgment is more accurate than any judgment that incumbents from only one party are to blame.
(C) Incumbents who are rightly blamed for a major political scandal should not seek reelection, but if they do, they should not be returned to office.
(D) Major political scandals can practically always be blamed on incumbents, but whether those incumbents should be voted out of office depends on who their challengers are.
(E) When major political scandals are less the responsibility of individual incumbents than of the parties to which they belong, whatever party was responsible must be penalized when possible.
E
B
Although it’s a common perception that philosophy has no practical application to the real world, HISTORY SUGGESTS OTHERWISE. In fact, the word “philosophy” itself derives from the Greek roots philos, meaning “love”, and sophos, which means “wisdom”. Taken together, THE WORD PHILOSOPHY LITERALLY MEANS “LOVE OF WISDOM”
The bolded phrases play which of the following roles in the argument above?
A The first phrase states the conclusion and the second phrase offers support for that conclusion.
B The first phrase introduces evidence supporting a conclusion, and the second phrase contains that evidence.
C The first phrase contains an objection to a common perception, and the second phrase offers support for that objection.
D The first phrase states a premise on which the conclusion is based, and the second phrase offers a supporting definition.
E The first phrase defines a word crucial to the argument, and the second phrase states the conclusion.
C
Millions of homes are now using low-energy lighting, but millions more have still to make the switch, a fact that the government and the home lighting industry are eager to change. Although low-wattage bulbs cost more per bulb than normal bulbs, their advantages to the homeowner are enormous, and therefore everyone should use low-wattage bulbs.
Information about which one of the following would be LEAST useful in evaluating the argument?
(A) the actual cost of burning low-wattage bulbs compared to that of burning normal bulbs
(B) the profits the home lighting industry expects to make from sales of low-wattage bulbs
(C) the specific cost of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb
(D) the opinion of current users of low-wattage bulbs as to their effectiveness
(E) the average life of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb
B
Dialectology, a sub-field of linguistics that studies variations in a language, began as an effort to produce dialect maps, in which lines were drawn on a map indicating different dialect areas. In the late 1920s, dialectologists became more concerned with social factors and began taking social variation into account in their studies of dialect. This occurred as a result of structuralist developments in the study of language.
Which of the following statements, if true, would most strengthen the argument above?
A After 1930, linguists no longer considered dialect maps useful in the study of dialect.
B If not for structuralist developments in the study of language, psychologists may never have incorporated linguistic factors into their studies.
C Structuralism is a linguistic approach that focuses on the relationships between elements and the social structures that result.
D Some linguists consider dialectology is a social science due to its focus on social factors.
E Though by the mid 20th century structuralism was one of the most popular and widespread academic approaches, in the 1930s it was still barely known.
C
Alice: Quotas on automobile imports to the United States should be eliminated. Then domestic producers would have to compete directly with Japanese manufacturers and would be forced to produce higher-quality cars. Such competition would be good for consumers.
David: You fail to realize, Alice, that quotas on automobile imports are pervasive worldwide. Since Germany, Britain, and France have quotas, so should the United States.
Which one of the following most accurately characterizes David’s response to Alice’s statement?
(A) David falsely accuses Alice of contradicting herself.
(B) David unfairly directs his argument against Alice personally.
(C) David uncovers a hidden assumption underlying Alice’s position.
(D) David takes a position that is similar to the one Alice has taken.
(E) David fails to address the reasons Alice cites in favor of her conclusion.
E
If that insect is a bee, it can only sting once. It only did sting once. So it is a bee.
Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above?
(A) Spring is here. It has to be, because when it is spring, I cannot stop sneezing; and I just sneezed.
(B) When the sky is clear, the atmospheric pressure is high. At the moment, it is clearing up, so the atmospheric pressure is bound to be high soon.
(C) Old and brittle paintings are always moved with extreme care. That particular painting is never moved with extreme care. So it must not be old and brittle.
(D) Only one more thunderstorm was needed to ruin that roof. But the roof was still fine a month later. There must not have been any thunderstorms over that month.
(E) To survive in the wild requires physical stamina like Mark’s. All the same,Mark’s fear of spiders would prevent his survival.
A
Recent research in neuropsychology suggests that laughter is less a response to humor than a kind of involuntary social signal. In one study, a social scientist observed instances of laughter in diverse settings, and found that 80 to 90 percent occurred after straight lines such as “talk to you later” and “I know”.
The argument above depends on which of the following unstated assumptions?
A Involuntary social signals can be studied with observational methods.
B The diverse settings in the study included diverse populations as well.
C Statements can be removed from context without any loss of meaning.
D People laugh after straight lines because they believe they are expected to.
E Humor and laughter are one and the same.
C
The qwerty keyboard became the standard keyboard with the invention of the typewriter and remains the standard for typing devices today. If an alternative known as the Dvorak keyboard were today’s standard, typists would type significantly faster. Nevertheless, it is not practical to switch to the Dvorak keyboard because the cost to society of switching, in terms of time, money, and frustration, would be greater than the benefits that would be ultimately gained from faster typing.
The example above best illustrates which one of the following propositions?
(A) Often it is not worthwhile to move to a process that improves speed if it comes at the expense of accuracy.
(B) People usually settle on a standard because that standard is more efficient than any alternatives.
(C) People often remain with an entrenched standard rather than move to a more efficient alternative simply because they dislike change.
(D) The emotional cost associated with change is a factor that sometimes outweighs financial considerations.
(E) The fact that a standard is already in wide use can be a crucial factor in making it a more practical choice than an alternative
E
A
A
Mayor of Plainsville: In order to help the economy of Plainsville, I am using some of our tax revenues to help bring a major highway through the town and thereby attract new business to Plainsville.
Citizens’ group: You must have interests other than our economy in mind. If you were really interested in helping our economy, you would instead allocate the revenues to building a new business park, since it would bring in twice the business that your highway would.
Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would most help the citizens’ group to justify drawing its conclusion that the mayor has in mind interests other than Plainsville’s economy?
(A) Anyone really pursuing a cause will choose the means that that person believes will advance the cause the farthest.
(B) Any goal that includes helping the economy of a community will require public revenues in order to be achieved.
(C) Anyone planning to use resources collected from a group must consult the members of the group before using the resources.
(D) Any cause worth committing oneself to must include specific goals toward which one can work.
(E) Any cause not pursued by public officials, if it is to be pursued at all, must be pursued by members of the community.
A
The government of Zunimagua has refused to schedule free elections, release political prisoners, or restore freedom of speech; therefore, no more financial aid from the United States should be provided to Zunimagua.
Which of the following is an assumption made in the argument above?
A) Withdrawal of U.S. aid from Zunimagua will force a change in the policies of its government.
B) The people of Zunimagua would be better off if their present despotic government were overthrown.
C) The government of Zunimagua is dependent on continued U.S. aid for its existence.
D) U.S. aid should be given only to countries willing to adopt policies in line with U.S. interests and goals.
E) U.S. aid should be withdrawn from any country that refuses to operate its government along democratic lines
E
As air-breathing mammals, whales must once have lived on land and needed hind limbs capable of supporting the mammals’ weight.Whales have the bare remnants of a pelvis. If animals have a pelvis, we expect them to have hind limbs. A newly discovered fossilized whale skeleton has very fragile hind limbs that could not have supported the animal’s weight on land. This skeleton had a partial pelvis.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following, if also true, would most strongly support the conclusion that the fragile hind limbs are remnants of limbs that land-dwelling whales once had?
(A) Whale bones older than the fossilized hind limbs confirm that ancient whales had full pelvises.
(B) No skeletons of ancient whales with intact hind limbs capable of supporting the mammals’ weight have ever been found.
(C) Scientists are uncertain whether the apparently nonfunctioning limbs of other early mammals derived from once-functioning limbs of their ancestors.
(D) Other large-bodied mammals like seals and sea lions maneuver on beaches and rocky coasts without fully functioning hind limbs.
(E) Some smaller sea-dwelling mammals, such as modern dolphins, have no visible indications of hind limbs.
A
Political philosopher: A just system of taxation would require each person’s contribution to correspond directly to the amount the society as a whole contributes to serve that person’s interests. For purposes of taxation, wealth is the most objective way to determine how well the society has served the interest of any individual. Therefore, each person should be taxed solely in proportion to her or his income.
The flawed reasoning in the political philosopher’s argument is most similar to that in which one of the following?
(A) Cars should be taxed in proportion to the danger that they pose. The most reliable measure of this danger is the speed at which a car can travel. Therefore, cars should be taxed only in proportion to their ability to accelerate quickly.
(B) People should be granted autonomy in proportion to their maturity. A certain psychological test was designed to provide an objective measure of maturity. Therefore, those scoring above high school level on the test should be granted complete autonomy.
(C) Everyone should pay taxes solely in proportion to the benefits they receive from government. Many government programs provide subsidies for large corporations. Therefore, a just tax would require corporations to pay a greater share of their income in taxes than individual citizens pay.
(D) Individuals who confer large material benefits upon society should receive high incomes. Those with high incomes should pay correspondingly high taxes. Therefore, we as a society should place high taxes on activities that confer large benefits upon society.
(E) Justice requires that health care be given in proportion to each individual’s need. Therefore, we need to ensure that the most seriously ill hospital patients are given the highest priority for receiving care
A
Evan: I am a vegetarian because I believe it is immoral to inflict pain on animals to obtain food. Some vegetarians who share this moral reason nonetheless consume some seafood, on the grounds that it is not known whether certain sea creatures can experience pleasure or pain. But if it is truly wrong to inflict needless suffering, we should extend the benefit of the doubt to sea animals and refrain from eating seafood.
Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated by Evan’s criticism of vegetarians who eat seafood?
(A) I do not know if I have repaid Farah the money she lent me for a movie ticket. She says that she does not remember whether or not I repaid her. In order to be sure that I have repaid her, I will give her the money now.
(B) It is uncertain whether all owners of the defective vehicles know that their vehicles are being recalled by the manufacturer. Thus, we should expect that some vehicles that have been recalled have not been returned.
(C) I am opposed to using incentives such as reduced taxes to attract businesses to our region. These incentives would attract businesses interested only in short-term profits. Such businesses would make our region’s economy less stable, because they have no long-term commitment to the community.
(D) Updating our computer security system could lead to new contracts. The present system has no problems, but we could benefit from emphasizing a state-of-the-art system in new proposals. If we do not get new customers, the new system could be financed through higher fees for current customers.
(E) Isabel Allende lived through the tragic events of her country’s recent history; no doubt her novels have been inspired by her memories of those events. Yet Allende’s characters are hopeful and full of joy, indicating that Allende’s own view of life has not been negatively marked by her experiences
A
The more television children watch, the less
competent they are in mathematical knowledge.
More than a third of children in the United States watch television for more than five hours a day; in South Korea the figure is only 7 percent. But whereas less than 15 percent of children in the United States understand advanced measurement and geometric concepts, 40 percent of South Korean children are competent in these areas. Therefore, if United States children are to do well in mathematics, they must watch less television.
Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends?
(A) Children in the United States are less interested in advanced measurement and geometric concepts than are South Korean children.
(B) South Korean children are more disciplined about doing schoolwork than are children in the United States.
(C) Children who want to do well in advanced measurement and geometry will watch less television.
(D) A child’s ability in advanced measurement and geometry increases if he or she watches less than one hour of television a day.
(E) The instruction in advanced measurement and geometric concepts available to children in the United States is not substantially worse than that available to South Korean children.
E
Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of bean plants or other legumes produce fixed nitrogen, which is one of the essential plant nutrients and which for nonlegume crops, such as wheat, normally must be supplied by applications of nitrogen-based fertilizer. So if biotechnology succeeds in producing wheat strains whose roots will play host to Rhizobium bacteria, the need for artificial fertilizers will be reduced.
The argument above makes which one of the following assumptions?
(A) Biotechnology should be directed toward producing plants that do not require artificial fertilizer.
(B) Fixed nitrogen is currently the only soil nutrient that must be supplied by artificial fertilizer for growing wheat crops.
(C) There are no naturally occurring strains of wheat or other grasses that have Rhizobium bacteria living in their roots.
(D) Legumes are currently the only crops that produce their own supply of fixed nitrogen.
(E) Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of wheat would produce fixed nitrogen.
E
Pamela: Business has an interest in enabling employees to care for children, because those children will be the customers, employees, and managers of the future. Therefore, businesses should adopt policies, such as day-care benefits, that facilitate parenting.
Lee: No individual company, though, will be patronized, staffed, and managed only by its own employees’ children, so it would not be to a company’s advantage to provide such benefits to employees when other companies do not.
In which one of the following pairs consisting of argument and objection does the objection function most similarly to the way Lee’s objection functions in relation to Pamela’s argument?
(A) New roads will not serve to relieve this area’s traffic congestion, because new roads would encourage new construction and generate additional traffic. Objection: Failure to build new roads would mean that traffic congestion would strangle the area even earlier.
(B) Humanity needs clean air to breathe, so each person should make an effort to avoid polluting the air.
Objection: The air one person breathes is affected mainly by pollution caused by others, so it makes no sense to act alone to curb air pollution.
(C) Advertised discounts on products draw customers’ attention to the products, so advertised discounts benefit sales. Objection: Customers already planning to purchase a product accelerate buying to take advantage of advertised discounts, and thus subsequent sales suffer.
(D) If people always told lies, then no one would know what the truth was, so people should always tell the truth.
Objection: If people always told lies, then everyone would know that the truth was the opposite of what was said.
(E) Human social institutions have always changed, so even if we do not know what those changes will be, we do know that the social institutions of the future will differ from those of the past.
Objection:The existence of change in the past does not ensure that there will always be change in the future.
B
The life expectancy of people living below the poverty line in the United States is seven years shorter than the national average. A public health advocate argues that this is due to the fact that the poor cannot afford preventative medical care and often live in substandard housing where harmful substances such as lead paint and asbestos are common. An expansion of health insurance services to those below the poverty line is an ultimately more cost-efficient way of raising life expectancy, because preventative care will forestall many expensive emergency treatments.
Which of the following, if true, accurately identifies the most significant flaw in the public health advocate’s argument that health insurance services for those below the poverty line should be expanded?
A. The public health advocate does not provide sufficient information about the amount of money that will be saved by preventing emergency medical treatments.
B. The expansion of health insurance services to those below the poverty line will not address health problems caused by substandard housing.
C. Many health care providers are especially concerned with treating complications caused by exposure to lead paint and asbestos.
D. Census results do not clearly indicate what percentage of the population falls below the poverty line.
E. Lead paint and asbestos, though they cause medical problems, have not been conclusively proven to shorten life expectancy
B
In a new police program, automobile owners in some neighborhoods whose cars are not normally driven between 1 A.M. and 5 A.M. can display a special decal in the cars’ windows and authorize police to stop the cars during those hours to check the drivers’ licenses. The theft rate for cars bearing such decals is much lower than had been usual for cars in those neighborhoods. If it is concluded from the statements above that automobile theft has been reduced by the program, which one of the following would it be most important to answer in evaluating that conclusion?
(A) Are owners who are cautious enough to join the program taking other special measures to protect their cars against theft?
(B) In how many neighborhoods is the police program operating?
(C) Are cars in neighborhoods that are actively participating in the program sometimes stolen during daylight hours?
(D) Will owners who have placed decals on their cars’ windows but who find it necessary to drive between 1 A.M. and 5 A.M. be harassed by police?
(E) Are the neighborhoods in which the program has been put into effect a representative cross section of neighborhoods with respect to the types of automobiles owned by residents?
A
If a society encourages freedom of thought and expression, then, during the time when it does so, creativity will flourish in that society. In the United States creativity flourished during the eighteenth century. It is clear, therefore, that freedom of thought was encouraged in the United States during eighteenth century.
An error of reasoning of the same kind as one contained in the passage is present in each of EXCEPT:
(A) According to the airline industry, airfares have to rise if air travel is to be made safer; since airfares were just raised, we can rest assured that air travel will therefore become safer.
(B) We can conclude that the Hillside police department has improved its efficiency, because crime rates are down in Hillside, and it is an established fact that crime rates go down when police departments increase their efficiency.
(C) People who are really interested in the preservation of wildlife obviously do not go hunting for big game; since Gerda has never gone hunting for big game and intends never to do so, it is clear that she is really interested in the preservation of wildlife.
(D) If the contents of a bottle are safe to drink, the bottle will not be marked “poison,” so, since the bottle is not marked “poison,” its contents will be safe to drink.
(E) None of the so-called Western democracies is really democratic, because, for a country to be democratic, the opinion of each of its citizens must have a meaningful effect on government, and in none of these countries does each citizen’s opinion have such an effect.
E
B
Nature constantly adjusts the atmospheric carbon level. An increase in the level causes the atmosphere to hold more heat, which causes more water to evaporate from the oceans, which causes increased rain. Rain washes some carbon from the air into the oceans, where it eventually becomes part of the seabed. A decrease in atmospheric carbon causes the atmosphere to hold less heat, which causes decreased evaporation from the oceans, which causes less rain, and thus less carbon is washed into the oceans. Yet some environmentalists worry that burning fossil fuels may raise atmospheric carbon to a dangerous level. It is true that a sustained increase would threaten human life. But the environmentalists should relax— nature will continually adjust the carbon level.
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument in the passage?
(A) Plant life cannot survive without atmospheric carbon.
(B) It is not clear that breathing excess carbon in the atmosphere will have a negative effect on human life.
(C) Carbon is part of the chemical “blanket” that keeps the Earth warm enough to sustain human life.
(D) Breathing by animals releases almost 30 times as much carbon as does the burning of fossil fuels.
(E) The natural adjustment process, which occurs over millions of years, allows wide fluctuations in the carbon level in the short term.
E
Recently, highly skilled workers in Eastern Europe have left jobs in record numbers to emigrate to the West. It is therefore likely that skilled workers who remain in Eastern Europe are in high demand in their home countries.
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
(A) Eastern European factories prefer to hire workers from their home countries rather than to import workers from abroad.
(B) Major changes in Eastern European economic structures have led to the elimination of many positions previously held by the highly skilled emigrants.
(C) Many Eastern European emigrants need to acquire new skills after finding work in the West.
(D) Eastern European countries plan to train many new workers to replace the highly skilled workers who have emigrated.
(E) Because of the departure of skilled workers from Eastern European countries, many positions are now unfilled.
B
Shanna: Owners of any work of art, simply by virtue of ownership, ethically have the right to destroy that artwork if they find it morally or aesthetically distasteful, or if caring for it becomes inconvenient. Jorge: Ownership of unique artworks, unlike ownership of other kinds of objects, carries the moral right to possess but not to destroy. A unique work of art with aesthetic or historical value belongs to posterity and so must be preserved, whatever the personal wishes of its legal owner
On the basis of their statements, Shanna and Jorge are committed to disagreeing about the truth of which one of the following statements?
(A) Anyone who owns a portrait showing his/her father in an unflattering light would for that reason alone be ethically justified in destroying it.
(B) People who own aesthetically valuable works of art have no moral obligation to make them available for public viewing.
(C) Valuable paintings by well-known artists are seldom intentionally damaged or destroyed by their owners.
(D) If a piece of sculpture is not unique, its owner has no ethical obligation to preserve it if doing so proves burdensome.
(E) It is legally permissible for a unique and historically valuable mural to be destroyed by its owner if he or she tires of it.
A
Observatory director: Some say that funding the megatelescope will benefit only the astronomers who will work with it. This dangerous point of view, applied to the work of Maxwell, Newton, or Einstein, would have stifled their research and deprived the world of beneficial applications, such as the development of radio, that followed from that research.
If the statements above are put forward as an argument in favor of development of the megatelescope, which one of the following is the strongest criticism of that argument?
(A) It appeals to the authority of experts who cannot have known all the issues involved in construction of the megatelescope.
(B) It does not identify those opposed to development of the megatelescope.
(C) It launches a personal attack on opponents of the megatelescope by accusing them of having a dangerous point of view.
(D) It does not distinguish between the economic and the intellectual senses of “benefit.”
(E) It does not show that the proposed megatelescope research is worthy of comparison with that of eminent scientists in its potential for applications.
E
In response to an overwhelming demand for better technical support, we have added an online help section to our website where customers can chat live with customer service representatives. We are confident that this change will significantly decrease both the number and frequency of complaints about our technical support.
The company’s plan assumes which of the following?
A Customers will not have other complaints.
B All of their customers have access to the internet.
C Customer service representatives can provide technical support.
D Online support will be equally as effective as telephone support.
E Customers are less likely to complain via email than by telephone
C
A
D
D
A
C
C
E
B
A
A
B
A
C
A
E
D
B
C
D
D
B
E
A
E
E
E
C
