Criminological- Bio

Question 1

What is Criminological Psychology?

Answer 1

Criminological psychology refers to the application of psychological knowledge to understand crime and anti-social behaviour. The areas of interest within criminological psychology look at what causes an individual to commit crime, how a crime is analysed and how a case is put together. It also includes behaviour in the courtroom, with particular reference to juries and witnesses. Finally, it includes developing treatment options for offenders in order to reduce the chances of a crime occurring again.

Question 2

Define crime

Answer 2

Crime is an act (or omission of an act) that is against the law.

Question 3

Define recidivism

Answer 3

persistent reoffending

Question 4

Define anti-social behaviour

Answer 4

behaviour that affects other people negatively

Question 5

What is the statistical gender difference between the number of males and female offenders.

Answer 5

80% of all offenders are male whilst 20% are female.

Question 6

According to the male age crime curve what age does peak offending behaviours in males occur?

Answer 6

17

Question 7

Describe what areas might be of interest when studying criminological psychology [4 marks]

Answer 7

Criminological psychology uses psychological knowledge and theories to understand and apply to criminal behaviour.
Different approaches can be used to explain the development of criminal anti-social behaviour (e.g. biological and social explanations.
Psychologists may also study the best interview techniques to help witnesses
remember as much as the can about a crime.
Psychologist are also concerned with developing effective treatment programmes for offenders in order to reduce recidivism.

Question 8

What does the male age crime curve tell us about cultural differences?

Answer 8

Male criminal behaviour mostly occurs between the ages of 14- 25 years old with a PEAK AROUND 17 YEARS OLD.
This trend is known as the ‘male age crime curve’,
This pattern is repeated internationally.
So, although there are cultural difference in what is considered a ‘crime’ the male age crime curve is “universal’

Question 9

What are the four biological explanations of criminal psychology?

Answer 9

Brain injury
Amygdala and aggression
XYY syndrome
Personality

Question 10

What is brain injury?

Answer 10

any impact on the brain structure that can affect its functionality.

Question 11

What are the two types of brain injury?

Answer 11

Acquired Traumatic Brain Injury (ABI) which is brain injury as a result of an external force such as a blow to the head from an accident.
On the other hand brain injuries can be referred to as Non-Traumatic, this is generally for brain injuries that result from illness such as a brain tumours, meningitis or a stroke.

Question 12

What is the functionality of the pre-frontal cortex?

Answer 12

Higher order decision making.
Regulation of fight/flight response.
Personality
Memory

Question 13

Consequences of a impaired pre-frontal cortex

Answer 13

• Poor judgement
•Poor impulse control
•Poor aggression control
• Personality changes
All of these could lead to crime

Question 14

Describe using a case study how brain injury can be linked to crime

Answer 14

Case studies of brain damaged patients have shown how anti-social
behaviour can arise after frontal lobe injury.
One of the most famous of these early case studies is that of Phineas Gage.
He was a railroad construction worker. Prior to the accident, Phineas was described as a likeable man with an even temperament.
But after an explosion of dynamite resulted in the rod passing through his skull and destroying the majority of his left frontal lobe, Phineas was left with noticeable changes to his personality. For example, he was said to be a irritable, drunk, vulgar, rude and he could not sustain living in a Normal society anymore.
This was one of the first documented cases that linked damage to the frontal lobe to changes in personality which in turn impacted negatively upon an individual’s behaviour.
In these case studies, damage to the frontal lobe was linked poor impulse control, sudden outburst of temper and lack of interpersonal sensitivity all which can increase the risk of crime.

Question 15

Describe a strength of using case
studies like Phineas Gage to study brain injury and criminal behaviour

Answer 15

Point: - A strength of a case study is that it can provide in depth & detailed information, especially in unique or rare cases.
Explain: - This means that researchers can study the effects of brain injury in an ethical way (as they can’t deliberately injure someone to see the effects). It is a start to understanding how specific head injuries can contribute to impulsive and anti-social behaviour, which can lead to crime

Question 16

Describe a weakness of using case
studies like Phineas Gage to study brain injury and criminal behaviour

Answer 16

Point: A weakness of using a case study like Phineas Gage, is that it only studies one person and therefore his behaviour cannot be generalised to all people with brain injuries
Explain: It cannot be assumed that all brain injuries would lead to the same behavioural changes, e.g. rude and impulsive, that were reported of Phineas Gage, as peoples different life experiences before the accident may also affect their behaviour and whether they engage in criminal activities or not.

Question 17

Describe Williams’s main findings with regards to whether there is a link between brain injuries and criminal and anti-social behavior.

Answer 17

P: Williams et al. (2010) argued that brain injuries might account for why some crimes are committed.
E: They found that 60% of the prison population had had an acquired brain injury.
E: This means that these prisoners may have had damage to parts of their brain which affected their impulsivity and judgement, leading them to being more at risk of engaging in criminal behaviour.
[C: However, it cannot be concluded that the ABl caused the criminal behaviour. Another explanation could be that the criminal behaviour contributed to them acquiring a brain injury]

Question 18

Recent Research linking Brain Injury to Criminal and Anti- social behaviour

Answer 18

Williams et al (2010)found that:
• 60% of 196 prisoners they investigated had received some form of traumatic brain injury due to falling, car accidents, or sporting activities
•Adults with brain injury were relatively younger at entry into prison systems and reported higher rates of repeat offending than those without brain injury.

Question 19

Evidence from brain scanning to support the link between brain injury and crime

Answer 19

Grafman et al (1996) studied men that sustained brain injuries whilst fighting in the Vietnam War.
• those veterans with brain damage to the frontal lobe were more likely to be aggressive, getting into fights
and arguments, than those with damage in other areas of the brain.
✅Studies that use such scanning techniques allow researchers to look at the brains of living human beings.
❌However, there is often little evidence of whether behaviour of the participants was aggressive before the study

Question 20

describe the findings and conclusions of Kreutzer et al. (1991) against brain injury as a link to crime

Answer 20

Kreutzer et al (1991)
• Studied 74 brain injury patients
• Most arrests occurred after the use of alcohol
Conclusions:
• Some criminal behaviour might be the result of TBI due to poor judgement etc.
• alcohol /substance abuse, TBI and crime were interconnected
• BUT rather than TBI causing crime it was more likely that substance abuse led to legal difficulties and TBI
• Kreutzer (1995) in further research concluded that without the presence of alcohol use, TBI was NOT a risk factor for criminal behaviour

Question 21

There is a gender difference for BRAIN INJURIES. Headway - The Brain Injury
Association report that males are more prone to head injuries than females.
Why do you think males are more prone to head injuries than females?

Answer 21

Testosterone = more aggression/fights = higher risk of ABI
Evolutionary theory -males have evolved to compete with other males in order to impress females. Males maybe more likely to get a head injury since they are ‘showing off’ and risk-taking to impress females.
If males are more prone to brain iniuries this could be one of the reasons why more males carry out criminal and anti-social behaviour than females

Question 22

Give evidence to support Evolution as an Explanation for Gender Differences in Brain Injury

Answer 22

Wilson and Daly (1985)
Status competition
• Males participate in risky activities such as violence to compete for higher status than other males
• Increasing their chances of winning a high value mate and successfully reproduce
• Such risky behaviour patterns put males more at risk of accidental brain injury

Question 23

Which case study demonstrated a change of behaviour after damage to frontal lobes?

Answer 23

Phineas Gage

Question 24

Who commits the majority of crimes/ anti social behaviour?

Answer 24

Males (80% crimes committed by males)

Question 25

What % of prisoners investigated Williams (2010) had received some form of TBI?'

Answer 25

60%

Question 26

How does status competition (Wilson & Daly) explain male brain injury?

Answer 26

Engaging in risky be haviour to win a mate -increases risk of ABI

Question 27

Describe brain injury as an explanation for crime and anti-social behaviour [4]

Answer 27

• Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) have been shown to change certain behaviours, especially in parts of the brain which are responsible for decision making and impulse control. • This can be seen in the study of Phineas Gage, who damaged his frontal lobes after an accident. His behaviour changed from a responsible, polite man to someone who was rude and impulsive. •Therefore, people with this type of TBI maybe more vulnerable to making poor decisions & being impulsive, leading them to be at risk of committing criminal behaviours. • More recent evidence has supported this, as Williams et al. (2010) found that 60% of 196 prisoners studied had some sort of TBI.

Question 28

Give a strength of validity in using brain injury as an explanation for crime

Answer 28

P: There is evidence that supports the link between brain injury and violent crime which gives the theory validity. E: For example Williams (2010) found that 60% of 196 young male prisoners reported a head injury.

Question 29

Give a strength of methodologies in using brain injury as an explanation for crime

Answer 29

P: Different methodologies have been used to study this and come to similar conclusions about frontal lobe damage and anti-social behaviour. This increases the validity & reliability of the findings E: Case studies like Phineas Gage evidenced the change in personality & impulsivity after he sustained injury to his frontal lobes. Other studies like Grafman (1996) used brain scans which showed a link between damage to frontal lobes and aggression.

Question 30

Give a weakness of using brain injury as an explanation for crime (cause and effect)

Answer 30

P: The relationship between brain injury and crime is not necessarily causal, other variables may have an influence. Individuals who have sustained serious head injury may also experience metal illness, alcohol & drug abuse, and it may well be these factors that contribute to criminal behaviour. E: Kreuzter found that once factors like alcohol and drug misuse had been taken into account of people who had suffered brain damage, then there was very little evidence to suggest that brain injury itself was a risk factor for criminal behaviour.

Question 31

Give a weakness of using brain injury as an explanation for crime (brain scanning)

Answer 31

P: Studies that use brain scanning techniques of brain damage often don't have any evidence of the brain before the study, therefore we cannot know what the brain looked like before the study took place to compare. E: Grafman et al. (1996) showed damage to frontal lobes of Vietnam veterans, and found that those with frontal lobe damage were more likely to be aggressive, getting into fights & arguments, than those with damage to other parts of the brain, however there was little evidence about the participants behaviour before the study took place, meaning it is difficult to infer cause and effect.

Question 32

Give a weakness of reductionism when using brain injury as an explanation for crime

Answer 32

Studies that look at brain damage alone for criminal behavior can often be considered reductionist, as they don't take into account other factors that may affect criminal behaviour, such as being young & male, witnessing family violence, having PTSD. It is hard to pinpoint brain injury alone as a cause for crime.

Question 33

Recall the function of the amygdala

Answer 33

The amygdala is responsible for processing EMOTIONS such as HAPPINESS, ANXIETY, FEAR and AGGRESSION. When we are exposed to a threatening stimulus, our amygdala is activated and this results in an increase in arousal and emotions. This response in the brain activates responses in our behaviour and as a result of the amygdala being aroused a human response is to either take FLIGHT (run away) or FIGHT and become AGGRESSIVE towards the threat.

Question 34

Describe how a impaired amygdala can increase likelihood of crime

Answer 34

•The threshold at which the activation of the amygdala occurs is too low - resulting in sudden outbursts of unprovoked aggression - leading to an assault. •The amygdala is malfunctioning so that anxiety and fear levels are low - this may lead to high levels of risk taking behaviour that may result in a criminal act.

Question 35

Describe the case study of Charles Whitman

Answer 35

Charles Whitman was an ex-marine who was studying engineering at the University of Texas. Whitman murdered his wife and mother at their homes and then went on a shooting rampage at the the University of Texas and killed 14 people and injured 32 others. Following his death an autopsy was carried out and they found Whitman to have a cancerous brain tumour, located in the. limbic system and impacted upon the amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus. It was believed that this brain tumour had a significant impact upon his brain functioning which led to this criminal behaviour. Although not demonstrated conclusively, this case study suggests the possible impact that the AMYGDALA can have on criminal behaviour.

Question 36

Recall the aim of Raine et al's (1997) study

Answer 36

To investigate whether there is a difference in brain functioning between murderers (who had pleaded not guilty for reason of insanity) and non-murderers using PET scans

Question 37

Recall the procedure of Raine et al's (1997) study

Answer 37

PROCEDURE: 41 (39M, 2F)participants charged with murder or manslaughter, pleaded NGRI. The control group: Matched to the experimental group on Sex; age; Psychiatric illness (schizophrenia). A radioactive glucose tracer was injected into the participant and was traced using the PET scanner while the participant was doing a task.

Question 38

Recall the results of Raine et al's (1997) study

Answer 38

RESULTS (summarised) 1. Murderers had a lower level of activity (shown by glucose metabolism) compared to the control group in such areas as the Lateral Prefrontal cortex 2.Asymmetrical activity in the amygdala (lower in left; higher in right) Than the controls

Question 39

Recall the conclusions of Raine et al's (1997) study

Answer 39

Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum etc, together with abnormal asymmetries of activity in the amygdala, (and thalamus and temporal lobe) could be linked to a predisposition towards violent behaviour.

Question 40

How can the results and conclusions gained from Raine’s study lead to violent behaviour?

Answer 40

1. Raine et al. suggest that the lack of functioning in the prefrontal cortex results in the reduced ability to regulate the activity of the limbic system and thus leads to difficulty in controlling natural aggressive responses to threatening stimuli. 2. Raine et al. suggest that the abnormal functioning of the amygdala, which is responsible for emotional processing, results in the murderers being fearless. This fearlessness could result in the increase chance of acting violently.

Question 41

More Recent Research linking Brain Injury to Criminal and Anti- social behaviour (Yang 2009)

Answer 41

YANG ET AL (2009) • Looked at 27 psychopathic people and compared them to 27 controls • Used a structural MRI scanner to measure the volume of both the amygdalae in each participant. • psychopaths had lower volume on both amygdalae compared to the controls. (17.1% less left amygdala & 18.9% less in the right amygdala). • There was also a significant negative correlation between reduced volume of the amygdalae and high psychopathy scores. CONCLUSION: • Psychopathy - manipulative, unemotional personality, lack of empathy • Findings support the idea that problems with the functioning of the amygdala are involved in criminal and antisocial behaviour.

Question 42

Describe the amygdala as an explanation for crime (4 marks)

Answer 42

The amygdalae are 2 small areas of the brain located in the limbic system; they are associated with behaviours such as aggression and fear(1). If a persons amygdalae are abnormal or not functioning properly, it may lead them to impulsive & risk taking behaviour, which might make them more likely to commit criminal acts (1). For example, Raine (1997) has shown that there is a link between murderers (NGRI) and poorly functioning amygdalae compared to a control group (1). Therefore faulty amygdalae can lead to people becoming involved in violent & anti-social behaviour (1).

Question 43

How psychological knowledge has changed over time in relation to the research that explores the link between the amygdala and aggression

Answer 43

P: There have been a number of technological developments over the years allowing researchers to investigate the relationship between the amygdala and criminal behaviour. E: Prior to the use of brain scanning techniques, case studies of individuals were used to make links. However, researchers often had to wait until the person was dead to carry out a post-mortem on their brain to see which areas were damaged. E: Charles Whitman carried out an extremely violent act of a mass shooting. A post-mortem showed that he had a tumour on his limbic system which may have contributed to this violent act. C: However, more recent research has used PET scans to investigate the amygdala in groups of people (who could be studied whilst alive). Raine found that PET scan revealed that a group of murderers had asymmetrical functioning of their amygdalae compared to controls. Using scanning techniques can help us understand the functioning of the criminal brain.

Question 44

give a strength of using reductionist methods to look at the link between the amygdala and criminal or anti-social behaviour?

Answer 44

P: A strength of using reductionism to examine the relationship between the amygdala and criminal behaviour is it allows for a single factor to be explored in isolation, which means we can see the role that the amygdala may play in anti-social & criminal behaviour. • E: For example. Yang et al. (2009 )used an MRI scanner to measure the volume of the amygdala and found that psychopaths had on average a smaller amygdala than the control group, suggesting a possible link between anti-social behaviour & the amygdala

Question 45

give a weakness of using reductionist methods to look at the link between the amygdala and criminal or anti-social behaviour?

Answer 45

• P: A weakness of using reductionism to explain the amygdala and criminal behaviour is that it doesn't really consider that there are other parts of the brain implicated in criminal behaviour. • E: Research suggests that the amygdala does not operate alone and is heavily influenced by the orbital frontal cortex, which is part of the frontal lobe and not the limbic system. • This suggests that the influence of the amygdala on aggression is difficult to disentangle

Question 46

What did Pardini (2014) find in their Research linking Amygdala to Criminal and Anti- social behaviour

Answer 46

Pardini et al. (2014) conducted neuroimaging scans on a group of 26 year old men. The men were divided into 2 groups: whether they had normal sized amygdala or whether they had reduced sized amygdala. Three years later, the researchers found that >the group with the reduced volume amygdala were three times more likely to be aggressive, violent and demonstrate psychopathic traits than the group with normal sized amygdala.<

Question 47

Identify 2 strengths of the explanation of the amygdala and crime

Answer 47

1. Supported by evidence (e.g. Raine et al. (1997); Yang et al., (2009); Pardini et al. (2014) 2. Use of neuro-imaging - objective & a number of people can analyse scans (increases inter-rater reliability)

Question 48

Identify weaknesses of the explanation of the amygdala and crime

Answer 48

•Not direct cause & effect conclusions can be drawn. Research shows that the amygdala doesn't really operate alone but is heavily influenced by the frontal cortex (which is not part of the limbic system), suggesting that the role of the amygdala can be difficult to disentangle. •Some studies eg Yang found correlations between the size of the amygdala & Psychopathy - but not necessarily related directly to a crime •Reductionist - only looks at amygdala, when other parts of brain may be involve doesn't take into account complexities of the causes of violent & criminal behaviour.

Question 49

Recall what chromosomes are

Answer 49

Long, coiled molecules of DNA inside the nucleus of a cell. All humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Question 50

Describe the XYY syndrome

Answer 50

The syndrome only occurs: In males - due to a RANDOM GENETIC ABNORMALITY (i.e. it is NOT inherited) Human male has an extra Y chromosome on the 23rd chromosome. Occurs in 1 in 1000 male births. Not an inherited condition - but occurs randomly at the time of conception. Men with XYY syndrome usually have some of the following characteristics: -Taller than siblings -Severe acne -Some studies have shown lower intelligence compared to siblings -Behavioral and emotional difficulties e.g. impulsive behaviour -Speech & language delay -They may be very physically active However, testosterone levels, fertility and sexual development are all normal.

Question 51

How can XYY syndrome link to criminal behaviour?

Answer 51

It is possible that behavioural and emotional difficulties and the tendency to high levels of physical activity that some XXY men experience may make anti-social behavior and aggressive behaviour more likely. These kinds of behaviours may mean that some XYY men are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.

Question 52

Give an example of early research which supports the explanation of XYY syndrome and crime

Answer 52

Jacobs et al (1965) Suggested that men with XYY syndrome were more aggressive than XY men. Found an over-representation of XYY men in the prison population, with 15 XYY men for every 1000 prisoners.

Question 53

Describe Theilgaard's research into XYY syndrome

Answer 53

Alice Theilgaard (1984) wanted to see if there was a particular gene that could be responsible for criminal behaviour and to investigate the XYY syndrome. Theilgaard took blood samples from over 30000 males born in the 1940's. The results showed that those with the XYY syndrome were found to have slightly lower intelligence and tended to be more aggressive than normal. This could be a link to suggest that there is evidence for a criminal gene IF aggression is a sign of criminality (however, not all criminals are aggressive AND not all aggression is criminal). In conclusion Theilgaard found no conclusive evidence of a criminal gene.

Question 54

Describe the research from Re and Birkhoff (2015) and what does this suggest about XYY syndrome and crime?

Answer 54

Re and Birkhoff (2015) concluded that the analysis of the studies in their review 'shows that there is no statistical evidence that an XYY man is predisposed, just because of his genotype, to aggressive and deviant behaviour.' They argued that XYY characteristics may account for a slightly higher population in prisons due to them finding it harder for such men to integrate into society. Therefore, the XYY syndrome theory is not a credible explanation of crime.

Question 55

Describe XYY syndrome as an explanation of crime and anti-social behaviour. (4)

Answer 55

1 in 1000 males are born with an extra Y chromosome so thev have 47 chromosomes (1). This leads to the males being slightly taller than their siblings, and having a slightly lower intelligence than their siblings (1). Xyy can also lead to the males being more impulsive, and having behavioural problems (1). Some XYY males are also physically active, all of these can lead to anti-social behaviour.

Question 56

Evaluate the credibility of the XYY syndrome as an explanation for crime?

Answer 56

•P: Early research indicated that men with XYY syndrome may be more likely to commit crime than men with only XY • E: For example Jacobs et al (1965), found that there was an over representation of XYY men in a prison population. P: However, a weakness of the XYY syndrome as an explanation for crime is that more recent evidence has largely discredited the link between XYY and criminal activity. • E: For example, Re & Birkhoff (2015) carried out a review study of research over 50 years relating to XYY syndrome and crime and found that there was no statistical evidence that an XYY man is predisposed just because of his genotype. • C: Therefore recent research suggests that the XYY theory is not a credible explanation for crime.

Question 57

Explain the gender differences associated with the XYY syndrome

Answer 57

Research into the role of XYY syndrome or any genetic elements in crime, may seem to support and perpetuate gender stereotypes that are oversimplified and exaggerated.

Question 58

Give a strength of XYY as an explanation of crime

Answer 58

Early research suggested a link between XYY and anti-social behaviour. If XYY syndrome is found early, then issues around physical development, behavioural & emotional issues can be addressed early.

Question 59

Describe weaknesses of XYY as an explanation of crime

Answer 59

•The XYY is a reductionist explanation, as it ignores environmental aspects and only explains crime through a genetic mutation. May be other factors at work. Witkin (1976) suggested that it was because XYY males might be labelled as different due to some of their physical characteristics, which may go on to influence their anti-social behaviour. •Women also carry out crimes and will not have the XY syndrome therefore the explanation has limitations in that it cannot fully explain all cases of criminal behaviour. •More recent research has shows more conclusively that a link between XYY & crime is not shown.

Question 60

What is personality?

Answer 60

Stable characteristics (traits) that underlie consistencies in the way we behave: •Over time •In different situations

Question 61

Define extraversion

Answer 61

Outgoing, sociable and active. Individuals want excitement and may become easily bored.

Question 62

Define introversion

Answer 62

Behaviour is typically reserved and reflective. More likely to prefer solitary to social activities.

Question 63

Define neuroticism

Answer 63

Emotional instability associated with anxiety, fear, depression and envy.

Question 64

Define stability

Answer 64

Emotionally calm, unreactive and unworried.

Question 65

Define Psychoticism

Answer 65

An individual who lacks empathy and is aggressive, impersonal and cold.

Question 66

How is personality measured?

Answer 66

Self - report is used in the form of: • Psychometric tests (questionnaires allowing the researcher to quantify a psychological variable e.g. personality) • Eysenck developed and used: THE EYSENCK PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE/INVENTORY

Question 67

Give two reasons why the Eysenck's Personality Inventory (EPI) might have limited validity as a measure of personality

Answer 67

The Validity of EPI is limited because of: • Social desirability :e.g. People might prefer to be seen as extrovert, rather than introvert, and stable rather than neurotic. • Demand characteristics : the individual knows they are being tested and this may alters their responses or behaviour. • Reductionism: complex human variable - personality - is reduced to a set of scores Critics also argue that the personality traits measured lack 'predictive validity' because people do not always behave in the same way in every situation.

Question 68

Explain the concept of personality

Answer 68

We all have different personalities, which make us the individuals that we are. Our personalities explain our interests, hobbies, how we interact with others, how we respond to situations and our overall outlook of life. HAS EYSENCK studied personalities extensively and proposed that biological components determine your personality. Within his research he studied three dimensions of personality related to the functioning of the individual's NERVOUS SYSTEM They explain all the differences in personality that are possible. Including why some people are criminals and others are not.

Question 69

In 1990 EYSENCK proposed that AROUSAL THEORY provided a biological explanation of personality. Describe arousal theory

Answer 69

This theory suggests that individuals are motivated to act in ways that maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. When arousal levels fall below/above an individual's optimal levels, the individual will engage in behaviours to increase/decrease arousal.

Question 70

Describe the Extroversion - Introversion dimension in personality

Answer 70

The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is a system in the brain that influences arousal levels in the cortex. •An extrovert is someone who has a low base line level of arousal, so gets bored and seeks stimulation to maintain a good level of excitation. They are therefore louder, more outgoing, attention seeking individuals who may lack concentration. •Introverted personalities prefer less stimulating environments and experiences.

Question 71

What is the ARAS?

Answer 71

•A system that transmits messages to the limbic system, triggering the release of hormones and neurotransmitters.

Question 72

Describe the STABLE - NEUROTIC dimension in personality

Answer 72

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) - in particular activation thresholds in sympathetic nervous system - responds threatening situations and situations that produce stress. •Unstable / neurotic personalities will show a rapid and strong response to stressful situations. Neurotic people, may be described as anxious, moody and restless. •This links to the arousal of the limbic system •Stable personalities have calmer physiological and emotional reactions to threat and stress

Question 73

How the Criminal Personality links to Biology- PSYCHOTICISM

Answer 73

• Eysenck linked Psychoticism to hormones, particularly testosterone If psychoticism relates to testosterone then you would expect males to score higher on psychoticism levels than females: • E.G: This could increase the risk of criminal behaviour in males.

Question 74

How the Criminal Personality links to Biology- EXTRAVERSION

Answer 74

Activity in the ARAS stimulates the cerebral cortex leading to a higher cortical arousal. Introverts are characterised by higher levels of cortical activity than extraverts. EXTROVERTS are characterised by an underactive ARAS, so require greater amounts of external stimulation. They also do not condition easily and do not learn from mistakes. Therefore, these traits could lead to greater risk taking and excitement seeking, increasing the risk of criminal behaviour.

Question 75

How the Criminal Personality links to Biology- NEUROTICISM

Answer 75

Linked to the limbic system hippocampus, amygdala and the hypothalamus etc. Neurotic individuals have greater activation levels and lower thresholds in the limbic system. They are easily upset in the face of minor stresses. E.G. Unstable / neurotic personalities will have a rapid and strong response to stressful situations due to lower activation thresholds in the limbic system. They are moody and touchy. This could lead to criminal behaviour

Question 76

Describe personality as an explanation of crime and anti-social behaviour (4)

Answer 76

• Eysenck studies personalities & argued that biological components such as arousal levels determine personality. He asserted that there were 3 main component: Extraversion, neuroticism & psychoticism, which could influence criminal behaviour. For example, extraverted people require a lot of external stimulation because their Ascending reticular activating system was low. This could lead them to being risk takers, leading them to commit crimes in order to satisfy their thrill seeking behaviour. Eysenck's theory has some support in Boduszek's (2013) study, where it was found that criminal thinking styles was correlated with high levels of psychoticism, extraversion & neuroticism • [In addition, Eysenck argued that criminals tend to be high in neuroticism scores, as they have greater activation in the limbic system (sympathetic nervous system), meaning they may be more fearful & aggressive]

Question 77

Eysenck himself produced research evidence to support his claims on personality. Describe his study

Answer 77

Aim: an attempt to link certain criminal behaviour to personality traits. The personality traits measured in this study are extroversion, neuroticism and psychosis. Procedure: Participants; 156 prisoners aged 18-38 years. They were divided into five groups on the basis of their crimes as follows: Violent crimes - prisoners who had committed 2 or more violent crimes (no sexual crimes) Property crimes- prisoners with 3 or more convictions for breaking and entering and other convictions for theft Confidence crimes (fraud) - prisoners with 3 or more convictions for fraud (no convictions for violent or sexual crimes) Inadequate - prisoners with 10 or more convictions in 3 years and serving a sentence of less than 18 months (no convictions for robbery and not more than 1 conviction for a violent or sex- al offence) Residuals - prisoners who did not fall into any of the above categories ( they had committed a variety of crimes mentioned above in combination) Procedure: They were all tested on: the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) a variety of physiological measures including EEG, and skin conductance (GSR galvanic skin response) Key Results and Conclusions; The authors claim that it is possible to classify offenders by personality types: •Psychoticism scores: con men had very low scores compare to the other groups •Neuroticism scores: violent and property offenders = low scores; inadequate and residuals =high scores. •Extroversion scores: violent and residual offenders = high scores; inadequate and property of- fenders = low scores. •Physiological differences were also found between the property and inadequate offenders and the other three groups. Overall the authors argue that certain personality traits can be linked to criminal behaviour.

Question 78

Give a weakness of personality and criminal behaviour

Answer 78

evidence for criminal personality is not conclusive. Farrington et al (1982) found very little evidence of that Eysenck's questionnaire (EPI) was an adequate measure for predicting offending in juveniles or adults, suggesting that his original ideas about the nature of criminal personality may lack validity

Question 79

Describe the Applications of Eysenck's theory

Answer 79

Eysenck's theory may have useful applications in preventing crime. The theory suggest that criminal tendencies such as lack of response to conditioning and the inability to learn from ones mistakes can be identified in early childhood. This means that if intervention comes early enough, it would be possible to modify the socialisation experiences of high risk individuals.

Question 80

PERSONALITY used to explain GENDER DIFFERENCES in Criminal and Anti-social Behaviour

Answer 80

Lynn and Martin (1997) assessed the PEN personality in 37 countries. They found that: •Women scored higher on neuroticism in all the countries •Men had higher psychoticism in 34 counties •Men had higher extraversion in 30 countries These findings indicate that there are gender differences in personality. Also, considering that psychoticism and extraversion featured more in males, personality offers a potential explanation as to why males carry out more crimes than females.

Question 81

Explain one strength pf personality as a factor that influences crime and anti-social behaviour (2 marks)

Answer 81

•Boduszek et al (2013) found that there were higher levels of extraversion amongst inmates who had high levels of recidivism, so supporting Eysenck's theory (1), and thus showing that Eysenck's theory has validity as he said high levels of extroversion were associated with criminal behaviour(1).

Question 82

TERRY HAD A MOTORCYCLE ACCIDENT WHEN HE WAS 17 YEARS OLD AND WAS IN A COMA FOLLOWING A HEAD INJURY. WHEN HE RECOVERED FROM HIS COMA HE RETURNED TO HIS NORMAL LIFE, STUDYING A-LEVELS. HOWEVER DURING HIS FIRST WEEK BACK HE STARTED GETTING INTO FIGHTS WITH OTHER STUDENTS AND SWEARING AT THE PRINCIPAL. HE WAS EXCLUDED FROM THE COLLEGE WITHIN TWO WEEKS FOR HITTING HIS TEACHER, JO. DISCUSS HOW THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH CAN PROVIDE AN EXPLANATION OF TERRY'S BEHAVIOUR.

Answer 82

P: There is evidence to suggest that traumatic brain injuries (TB1), such as that suffered by Terry can change a person's behaviour, making them more anti-social & impulsive. E: Evidence for this can be seen in the case study of Phineas Gage, whose behaviour became more anti-social and aggressive after an accident that damaged his frontal lobes, which may account for Terry getting into fights. P: Terry was excluded from college, meaning that he now has difficulties in relating to people and his behaviour is unacceptable, as he swore at the principal. E: There may have been damage to Terry's frontal lobes, which means he could not control his impulsive behaviour and decision making. P: Terry was excluded from college because he hit his teacher, suggesting that his TBI had impacted on his ability to control his aggressive behaviour. E: It could also be that Terry suffered damage to his amygdala, which is associated with aggressive behaviour. Evidence from Raine (1997) suggests that faulty amygdala may contribute to violent behaviour P: Another explanation for Terry's behaviour is that he is a 17 year old male. According to statistics, this is the peak age that males commit crimes. E: This could be explained through a number of reasons, one being that the frontal lobes, which are important in impulse control and judgements are not fully formed. P: However, an alternative biological explanation for Terry's anti-social behaviour is that Terry may have a personality that makes him more likely to engage in anti-social behaviour, like assaulting his teacher. E: According to Eysenck, Terry make have had high neuroticism, which means his limbic system is very active, which can increase a person's aggressive and fearful behaviour.