Criminal Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is criminal psychology?
A
Using psychological knowledge to understand anti-social behaviour and what factors contribute to this behaviour.
2
Q
Why is it important?
A
- The knowledge is used within legal settings.
> to interrogate people,
> in the courtroom,
> to treat offenders. - Understanding this behaviour can help to reduce it.
3
Q
What is anti-social behaviour?
A
Acting in a manner that causes alarm, harassment, or distress to members of the public.
4
Q
What is important to know about anti-social behaviour?
A
It’s not a criminal act in itself, however, it can lead to one.
5
Q
What is crime?
A
Behaviour that violates social norms, moral values, religious beliefs, and legal boundaries.
> punishable.
6
Q
What is recidivism?
A
Reoffending/repeating a crime or behaviour that you’ve been punished for or are receiving treatment for.
7
Q
What are the 4 biological explanations of crime?
A
- Brain Injury.
- Amygdala.
- XYY Syndrome.
- Personality Types/Disorders.
8
Q
How can Brain Injury explain crime?
A
- Trauma to the brain can affect behaviour depending on what part of the brain has been injured.
> e.g. amygdala=increased impulsiveness, irritability, and aggression.
> Phineas Gage=damage to PFC—became rude, inappropriate, aggressive.
9
Q
Who conducted a study on this?
A
Williams et al.
10
Q
What did they find?
A
- 60% of 196 prisoners had some form of brain injury.
- Those who had suffered a brain injury entered prison at a younger age.
- Brain injury may contribute to risk-taking behaviour.
11
Q
What consequences of brain injury did they find?
A
- Reduced awareness of emotions.
- Loss of memory.
- Poor concentration.
- Poor impulse control.
- Poor judgement.
12
Q
What does damage to the amygdala cause?
A
- Impulsivity.
- Irritability.
- Aggression.
13
Q
What does damage to the orbitofrontal areas cause?
A
- Loss of self-regulation and inhibition.
- Impulsivity.
- Lack of sensitivity.
- Impulsive reactive aggression.
14
Q
What does damage to the anterior brain cause?
A
- Loss of natural bias away from aggression.
15
Q
Give some strengths of this explanation.
A
- Blumer et al—case study.
> ASB can arise after frontal lobe injury.
> Orbitofrontal damage leads to poor impulse control, outbursts and decision making. - Williams et al—60% of prisoners had brain damage.
> high reoffending rates.
> led to intervention to manage brain injury—to ensure people receive support—application. - Diaz—insanity as defence for criminal behaviour.
> most common damaged areas are frontal and temporal lobes.
> studies relate to ASB—link.
16
Q
Give some weaknesses of this explanation.
A
- Case studies look at damage and changed behaviour and link them.
> not strong evidence for cause and effect. - Kreutzer et al.
> 20% of 74 patients were arrested pre-injury—only 10% post-injury. - It’s hard to isolate and identify factors affecting criminal behaviour.
> may be things other than brain injury.
> those with brain injury are likely to be mentally ill or drug and alcohol abusers.
> predisposition to offend.
17
Q
What are some individual differences concerned with this explanation?
A
- There’s a lack of research on women.
> what there is suggests similar effects to males.
> males are more likely to engage in physical behaviours that bring about these attributes.
> e.g. sports and fighting. - May be e comorbid factors.
> pre-existing disorders.
> exposed to violence at a young age.
18
Q
How can the amygdala explain crime/ASB?
A
- The amygdala directs how we react to threatening and stressful situations.
- It works with the PFC to regulate stress—controlling aggression and social interaction.
> if it can’t respond due to damage it may react more aggressively than needed. - Communicates with the HPA to produce sufficient cortisol levels.
> more cortisol when there’s no threat can lead to stress reactions for a prolonged period.
19
Q
How can abnormalities in the amygdala lead to increased aggression?
A
- Damage can lead to over reactions and lack of emotion.
- Smaller amygdala have been found in those with psychopathic tendencies and high aggression.
20
Q
What are some studies that back up this explanation?
A
- Charles Whitman—had a tumour pressing on his amygdala.
- Raine—looked at brain structure in NGRI offenders.
> reduced left amygdala activity.
> increased right amygdala activity. - Animal studies—stimulating the amygdala with electrical currents.
> increased aggression.
21
Q
Give some strengths of this explanation.
A
- Raine.
> noticed difference in amygdala functioning between NGRI and non-offenders. - It’s scientific and reliable.
> brain scans.
> easily controlled variables. - Pardini.
> 503 6 year old males did a study.
> 20 years later 56 of them who showed aggressive behaviour were brought back.
> persisted even 3 yrs later.
22
Q
Give some weaknesses of this explanation.
A
- It’s reductionist.
> focuses solely on the amygdala—underplays the complexity of the brain.
> parts of the brain work together. - It’s possible to have amygdala issues and not act psychopathically.
> a neurologist identified a brain as psychopathic—it was his own.
23
Q
What is XYY Syndrome?
A
- Occurs only in males.
- Have 47 chromosomes—extra Y one.
- 1 in 1000.
- Doesn’t affect testosterone levels.
- There are physical and behavioural differences.
24
Q
What are the physical differences?
A
- Taller and faster growth than siblings.
- More physically active.
25
What are the social differences?
- Low intelligence—still in normal range.
- Impulsive.
- Behavioural problems.
- Easily distracted.
26
How can XYY Syndrome explain crime?
- Jacobs et al.
> men with XYY syndrome are more aggressive and lack empathy.
> over representation of men in prison with XYY syndrome—15 in 1000.
- XYY males cope less well in difficult circumstances.
> family conflict and stress.
- More likely to take part in minor crimes than those with just one Y chromosome.
27
Give some strengths of this explanation.
- Jacobs et al—15/1000 prisoners had XYY syndrome.
- Adler et al.
> possible that aggressive behaviour is partly determined by genetic factors.
28
Give some weaknesses of this explanation.
- It’s correlational—doesn’t establish cause and effect.
- Theilgaard.
> no solid evidence that men with XYY syndrome are any more aggressive/criminal than those
with XXY chromosomes.
- Ignores environment and upbringing.
> XYY syndrome can lead to bullying and marginalisation.
- Doesn’t account for female offenders.
29
What is Eysenck’s Theory of Personality?
- Criminal personality displays 3 dimensions (PEN):
1. High P scores—aggressive, antisocial, cold and egocentric.
2. High E scores—sociable, active, lively, and sensation seeking.
3. High N scores—anxious, depressed, and react strongly to stress—instability.
- 2 specific personality dimensions:
> extroversion vs introversion.
> neuroticism vs stability.
30
How does the Eysenck’s Personality Test help identify crime?
- Criminals have a significantly higher score on dimensions of psychoticism, extraversion-introversion, and neuroticism-stability.
31
Why is a higher score on the extraversion-introversion dimension an indicator of crime?
- Extraverts need more excitement—under-aroused CNS.
> they are thrill-seeking and resistant to conditioning (can’t learn from mistakes).
32
Why is a high score on the neuroticism-stability dimension an indicator of crime?
- Neurotic people’s nervous system responds strongly to the environment.
33
Why is a high score on the psychoticism dimension an indicator of crime?
- It represents an aggressive, cold and impersonal character.
34
Give some strengths of Personality Types as an explanation for crime.
- There is evidence to support existence of a criminal type.
> Boduszek et al—personality traits among re-offenders.
> suggested that a criminal thinking style is correlated with high psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism levels.
- Raine found a link between biological factors and offending.
> Took physiological measures from 15 year olds—related them to later criminal status.
> Those with a criminal record 24 years later had more under-arousal in the NS—lower resting heart rate.
- Berman and Paisey.
> American juvenile delinquents had a higher score on the psychoticism dimension.
35
Give some weaknesses of Personality Types as an explanation of crime.
- Correlational—cause and effect can’t be established.
- Lacks explanation—doesn’t explain why or how the traits lead to the crimes people commit.
- Suggests there’s only one type of criminal personality.
> 5 Factor Model adds openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness to Eysenck’s model.
> Criminal behaviour may be more complex than Eysenck suggests.
36
**SOCIAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME**
37
What does the social explanation of crime suggest?
- We are influenced by what we observe in the world.
> it either steers us towards or away from criminal behaviour.
38
What are the social explanations of crime?
- Labelling.
- Self-fulfilling Prophecy.
39
What is labelling?
- When terms are used to describe individuals or members of a group.
> based on stereotypes.
40
Why is labelling bad?
- Labels cause people to make judgements about others.
- It affects how society behaves towards an individual.
- The individual may believe they’re expected to behave in accordance with the label.
41
What does Becker say about labelling?
- Believes that powerful groups in society create deviance by making up rules and applying them to ‘outsiders.’
- Crime is a social construct.
42
What is retrospective labelling?
- Going back to the past and reinterpreting behaviour.
> ‘he was always bad.’
43
What is projective labelling?
- Saying what will happen in the future.
> ‘one of theses days he’s going to do something.’
44
Give some strengths of labelling as an explanation of crime.
- Besemer et al—411 males aged 8 to again at 50.
> having a convicted parent was a strong predictor of a child being convicted.
> low income and poor housing also predict conviction.
> these types of families are paid more attention—official bias.
- Self-fulfilling prophecy—support.
- Reintegrative shaming—applications.
> Lower crime and reoffending rates if shame about crime is communicated.
> offender receives support and is helped back into society.
45
Give some weaknesses of labelling as an explanation of crime.
- Difficult to say that labelling leads to criminal behaviour.
> other factors contribute.
> can’t isolate and control effects of labelling.
- Only a partial explanation.
> implies that without labelling, crime wouldn’t exist.
> someone who has committed a crime but hasn’t been labelled isn’t a criminal.
- Doesn’t account for individual differences.
> may choose crime.
46
What is Self-fulfilling Prophecy?
- When an individual sees themself as the label they’re given.
> starts acting that way.
47
How can this explain crime?
- Due to the label they are given they may see themselves as that label and act in accordance.
- They may feel stigmatised and isolated from society—turn to groups similar.
- The label gives them little opportunity to change or disprove the label.
> lives up to the expectations.
48
What is Self-defeating Prophecy?
- The individual may not want to live up to the label.
> do the exact opposite of what’s expected.
49
Give some strengths of this explanation of crime.
- Rosenthal and Jacobsen.
> students took IQ tests—the teachers were told who’d ‘bloom’ based off of the tests (randomised).
> They took the IQ test again—those who were said to ‘bloom’ had improved IQ scores.
- Jahoda.
> A group of boys from Ghana were named according to the day they were born.
> Monday represented ‘quiet’ and ‘placid.’
> Wednesday represented ‘aggressive.’
> Found that those named on Wednesday were more likely to be convicted.
- Zebrowitz.
> baby-faced boys were more likely to be delinquent.
> making up for the perception of being ‘weak’ and ‘child-like.’
50
Give some weaknesses of this explanation of crime.
- Rosenthal and Jacobsen.
> school setting—not crime related.
- Too many factors affect the relationship between crime and labelling.
> can’t study it effectively.
51
**SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY**
52
What is social learning theory?
We learn our behaviours from those around us.
> via peers or the media.
53
What are the 4 mediational processes?
- Attention.
- Retention.
- Reproduction.
- Motivation.
54
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Watching someone else being rewarded for carrying out a behaviour (the crime).
55
How can social learning theory explain criminal behaviour?
- We see role models perform criminal actions and then copy them.
56
How does it involve the 4 mediational processes?
- Attention—paying attention to the criminal behaviour.
- Retention—remembering the observed behaviour.
> more difficult for younger children—less developed cognitive ability.
- Reproduction—repeating the behaviour.
> need the ability, skills and opportunity to carry it out.
- Motivation—internal or external.
> internal=gives you a thrill.
> external=seeing the model be rewarded.
57
What are the 4 aspects to vicarious reinforcement?
1. Modelling effect—copying observed behaviour.
2. Eliciting effect—copying observed behaviour—slightly differently.
3. Disinhibiting effect—someone who wouldn’t normally do the behaviour does.
4. Inhibitory effect—stop doing something because punishment was observed.
58
Give some strengths of this explanation of crime.
- Experimental evidence.
> Williams—TV exposure to a small community.
> children were twice as aggressive.
- Practical applications.
> can be used to rehabilitate offenders—using appropriate role models.
- Bandura—boob dolls.
59
Give some weaknesses of this explanation of crime.
- Only looks at short-term effects of influence.
> assumes they’re going to repeat the behaviour continuously/grow up to be criminals.
> not deterministic.
- Doesn’t account for reoffenders.
> suggests that any observed punishment should deter them.
- Ignores individual differences.
> doesn’t consider biological factors—brain damage, XYY, amygdala.
60
**COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS**
61
When was this cognitive interview established?
1980s
62
What is the cognitive interview?
- Method of memory recall to maximise the accuracy of memory.
- Developed as a result of the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.
63
What are the 4 techniques used?
1. Report everything—even if it’s irrelevant.
> can trigger remembrance of other things.
2. Reinstate context—scene, thoughts, feelings, weather.
3. Reverse the order of the event.
4. Change the perspective—how would it been seen from different viewpoints?
> prevents effect of schemas.
64
What is the interview protocol?
1. Introduction—establish a relationship between interviewer and interviewee.
2. Free recall—80:20
> 80% talking for interviewee and 2% for interviewer.
> no interruption.
3. Imagery techniques to help recall.
4. Information is reviewed.
5. Continuation can be carried out if needed.
65
Give some weaknesses of the cognitive interview.
- Proven that they’re no more accurate than regular interviews.
> Geiselman et al—was an increase in correct recall but not much of a difference compared to regular interviews.
- Can be costly.
> require specialist training—takes concentration and training to ensure open and non-leading questions are asked.
- Even with training it can be difficult.
> would require regular practice too.
66
Give some strengths of the cognitive interview.
- Seek to gather the truth instead of confession and testimony.
> Loftus—conducted research into leading questions—has helped move away from aggressive interrogation techniques and leading questions.
- Modified cognitive interviews produced more correct details and better accuracy than a normal controlled interview (for all age groups).
> Holliday et al.
- Fisher et al—47% more useful than when using standard interviews.
67
**ETHICAL INTERVIEWS**
68
Why is it important to use ethical interviewing techniques?
- It’s the interviewers responsibility to work as ethically as possible.
- More likely to get valid information—prevents the interviewer bringing in own views and judgements.
- There are rights that the interviewee has that need to be adhered to.
69
What are the ethical standards when conducting a crime related interview?
- Every human is to be treated with dignity (BPS).
- They must be carried out in a non-judgmental way.
- Must not involve coercion.
- No shortcuts—the truth must be the focus.
- Anyone with special needs must be treated with appropriate care.
- No false information or deception can be brought.
70
What issues did Savage and Milne suggest should be covered in an ethical interview?
P.E.A.C.E
71
What is the P?
- Planning and preparation.
> Noting aims, objectives, topics and questions before the interview takes place.
72
What is E?
- Engage and explain.
> build rapport—explain how the interview will take place and what is expected.
73
What is the A?
- Account.
> an account of the suspects behaviour is provided.
> 3 phases:
1. Suspect agenda: open questions, free speech.
2. Police agenda: clarify account (don’t challenge).
3. Challenge: exploring inconsistencies—calmly and avoid confusion.
74
What is the C?
- Closure.
> Interview is brought to a conclusion.
> avoid anger and anxiety.
75
What is the E?
- Evaluate.
> interview is evaluated against aims.
76
Give some strengths of ethical interviewing.
- Kebbell et al.
> found it was the one type of interview that was effective in confessions from sex offenders.
- Roberts et al.
> it improves the reliability of interviewee info.
> improves how communities view the police.
- Holmberg and Christianson.
> interviews characterised by respect and positive attitude were more successful with murderers and sexual offenders.
77
Give some weaknesses of ethical interviews.
- Walsh and Milne.
> compared performance of trained and untrained interviewers.
> trained were better.
> more training is needed to improve the interviews.
> was little evidence of the planning stage—affected structure of the interviews.
- Not all aspects of PEACE are used in interviews.
> Walsh and Milne—rapport and planning not used.
- Difficult to separate and judge effectiveness of just ethical interviewing.
> overlaps with cognitive interviews.
78
**PSYCHOLOGICAL FORMULATION**
79
What is the purpose of Psychological Formulation?
- To assess and treat offending behaviour.
- Analysing the offence to understand what they did and the likelihood of reoffence.
80
What do Psychological Formulations focus on?
- Relationships.
- Biology.
- Social circumstances.
81
What is Phase 1?
Offence Analysis.
82
What happens in this phase?
- Insight is gained into the offender's motivations.
- Psychologist can asses risk of reoffence and how to reduce it.
83
Why might this be difficult?
There may be many complex reasons for committing the crime.
84
What is Phase 2?
Function of offending.
85
What happens in this phase?
- Looking into what purpose the crime serves for the individual.
86
What may some of the reasons for offending be?
- Addiction.
- Behaviourist.
> crime may be reinforced, as it's rewarding.
- Psychodynamic.
> result of early issues or family abuse.
87
What is Phase 3?
Application to treatment.
88
How can it apply to treatment?
- Many offenders have mental health conditions.
- It establishes an intervention for the offender.
89
Give some strengths of PF.
- Can help provide insight into complex cases.
> provides range of treatment and effective management.
- Has good applications in reducing offending.
> aims to tackle the source and educate the offender.
- Psychologists must adhere to the HCPC guidelines.
90
Give some weaknesses of PF.
- Difficult to measure its success.
> assessed on whether reoffence occurs.
> most goes undetected.
- Info can be biased.
> gathered via offender interviews.
> may provided flawed and unreliable info.
- Psychologists may misinterpret info.
91
**TREATMENT FOR CRIME**
92
What are the different treatments?
- Anger management/CBT.
- Improved diet.
93
What does CBT/Anger Management do?
- Helps offenders develop insight into thoughts and feelings.
- Can help change offender's thoughts.
- Can restructure distorted thinking.
94
Who created Anger Management?
Novaco.
95
What is the purpose of it?
- Teach offenders how to deal with anger.
- Teaches relaxation techniques, diet regimes, and assertiveness training.
96
What are the 3 main steps?
1. Cognitive Preparation.
2. Skill Acquisition.
3. Application Practice.
97
What happens in the Cognitive Preparation stage?
- Situations that provoke anger are identified.
- Triggers for anger are understood.
98
What happens in the Skill Acquisition stage?
- Coping skills are learned.
> relaxation, avoidance, conflict resolution.
- Offenders are taught to not be fearful of anger, as it's a normal emotion.
99
What happens in the Application Practice stage?
- Role-play scenarios are carried out to practice new control skills.
- Positive reinforcement is used for appropriate responses, to encourage offenders.
100
How can Anger Management be carried out?
- Prisons or community.
- Small groups.
- Run by trained practitioners.
- Anger diaries.
- Effective techniques are evaluated.
101
Give some strengths of Anger Management.
- Valid.
> data is gathered from offenders doing the treatment.
> data is detailed.
- Addresses different aspects of offending behaviour.
> acknowledges the complexity of offending.
- Howells et al.
> anger management may be successful because of the information provided, nit the skills practiced.
102
Give some weaknesses of Anger Management.
- Programmes don't focus on the victim.
> don't deal with morality issues.
- Info is collected using self-report.
> social desirability.
- Frank (2006).
> motivation to change anger increased, but no difference in pre + post scores.
> increased understanding of anger, but not effective in making change.
103
Why is Improved Diet a treatment for offending?
- It's suggested that people deficient in certain vitamins, minerals and fatty acids are more likely to engage in aggressive acts.
- If diet improves it can lead to improvement in general conduct.
104
How does a high sugar diet link to crime?
- Junk food and sugary snacks cause high glucose levels and major insulin secretions.
> leads to hypoglycaemia.
- Hypoglycaemia links to irritability, difficulty making judgements and violence.
105
Give examples of 2 studies that back this theory up.
- Simon Moore et al.
> 69% of violent offenders reported eating confectionary almost every day during childhood.
> only suggests a link, not a cause.
- David Benton et al.
> children playing videogames became more aggressive as blood sugar levels decreased.
106
How can vitamins, minerals and fatty acids link to criminal behaviour?
- Brain function relies on steady supply of the right vitamins and minerals.
- More junk food=less space for healthy nutritional content.
- Lack of nutrients leads to mental illness.
107
What usual steps are taken to change diet?
- Vitamins and minerals the offender is lacking are established.
- Multi-vitamins are added to the offender's diet.
- Their behaviour is then monitored.
108
What was the aim of Gesch et al's study into diet change?
Test if improved diet was linked to reduction in anti-social behaviour.
109
Describe the procedure of this study.
- 231 inmates at a young offender's institute.
- Baseline measures of anger, anxiety and depression were taken.
- 2 weeks-9 months involvement.
- Experimental group=given supplements.
- Control group=placebos.
- Groups were matched for incidents.
- Double-blind procedure.
> the staff didn't know which group received placebos or real supplements.
110
What were the findings of this study?
- Experimental group had a 35% reduction in disciplinary incidents.
> placebo group=7%.
- Experimental group has at 37% reduction in violent incidents.
> placebo=10%.
111
What did they conclude?
- Increased vitamins, minerals and fatty acids are linked to decreased anti-social behaviour.
112
Give some strengths of diet change as a treatment.
- Supported by research.
> Gesch.
> Schoenthaler.
> reduced sugar consumption=48% reduction in ASB.
- Controlled studies.
> validity.
> Gesch=db procedure reduced dcs, groups were matched.
113
Give some weaknesses of diet change as a treatment.
- Studies were highly controlled.
> can't know if they can be generalised to real life.
- Can't establish cause and effect.
> crime is complex.
> those in society with the worst diets are likely to be living in socially and economically deprived circumstances.
- Most studies only focus on violent crimes.
> diet change may only apply to these offenders.
- Reductionist.
> ignores cognitive factors.
114
**EYE-WITNESS TESTIMONY**
115
What are the factors affecting ewt?
- Weapon focus.
- Post-event information.
- Stress.
- Gender.
116
How can weapon focus affect ewt?
- When a weapon is involved, people tend to focus on it more.
> weapons are unusual in many cultures.
- Witnesses may focus on the weapon, ignoring peripheral information.
> focus attention away from less dramatic images.
- Recall of the event may be limited to the weapon itself.
117
Give some studies that support this.
- Steblay.
> significant difference between weapon present and weapon absent conditions.
> when a weapon was present there was lower identification accuracy.
> meta-analysis of real life and videos.
- Maas and khonken.
> students approached by a woman holding either a syringe or a pen.
> those who experienced the syringe condition has worse identification.
> greater their fear of injection, the worse the recall.
118
Give some studies that don't support this.
- Pickel.
> scene at a hair salon.
> a man approached the receptionist holding either scissors, a gin, a raw chicken, or a wallet.
> those who experienced the handgun or chicken scenario had lower recall.
> suggests that it's just the unusualness of the object, not the threat.
- Wagstaff.
> coded police interviews of witnesses of robbery, assault or rape.
> no evidence of any weapon focus.
119
How can post-event information affect ewt?
- Information given after the event has occurred can be incorporated into the witnesses' memory.
- Witnesses are interviewed over time.
> experiences can change.
- They may gain post-event information from other witnesses, lawyers or police and fit it in to their memory to make the event make more sense.
120
Give some research that supports this.
- Loftus and Palmer.
> leading questions.
> car crash.
- Gabbert.
> video of a crime at different angles.
> videos were watched and then pairs discussed what they'd seen.
> 71% recalled info they couldn't have seen from the angle they watched.
121
Give some research that doesn't support this.
- Yuille and Cutshall.
> real life gun shop robbery.
> thief was shot and killed by the owner.
> witnesses were interviewed by police and then again 4 months later.
> accuracy remained consistent and they weren't misled by misleading questions.
> robbery was violent-not representative.
- Most studies relating to post-event info/leading questions are lab based.
> not accurate.
> aware crime isn't real and they're being tested.
> the emotional impact isn't the same.
122
How can stress and arousal affect ewt?
- Performance is impaired when we are under stress or arousal.
- Being too relaxed can also impair performance.
123
Give some research that supports this.
- Valentine and Mesout (contemp study)
> London Dungeon study.
> those who scored high on the anxiety questionnaire had lower recall of the 'scary person'
- Maas and Kohnken.
> approached by a woman with a syringe or pen.
> higher the fear of injection, the worse the recall of the woman.
124
Give some research that doesn't support this.
- Yuille and Cutshall.
> found that the greater the reported arousal, the more accurate the testimony.
> those with the highest arousal were the closest to the crime.
125
How can gender affect ewt?
- Suggested that females are better eye-witnesses.
> better at recall.
126
Give some research that supports this.
- Areh.
> watched a recording of a violent robbery.
> females were more accurate in describing people than males.
> males were more accurate in describing the event and place.
127
Give some research that doesn't support this.
- Valentine and Mesout (contemp study).
> females reported higher anxiety.
> 7 females correctly recalled, as opposed to 19 males.
128
How can these factors affecting ewt be applied?
- Have led to changes in the legal system.
- Psychologists mat be called upon to provide psychological evidence.
- Useful in reducing miscarriages of justice.
129
**CLASSIC STUDY**
130
Who is this study by?
Loftus and Palmer.
131
What was the aim?
To test the hypothesis that language/leading questions can alter ewt memory.
132
Describe the sample of the first experiment.
- 45 American students.
- Opportunity sample.
133
What was the IV and the DV?
- IV=wording.
- DV=speed reported.
134
Describe the procedure.
- Lab experiment.
- 7 films of traffic incidents.
- Ptps were asked what happened.
> then asked specific questions about speed.
135
What were the findings?
- Estimated speed was affected by the verb used.
- "Smashed" recorded higher speeds than "hit."
- "Smashed"=41mph.
- "Hit"=34mph.
136
What did they conclude?
- Phrasing of questions can alter perceptions.
- It can influence their answer, not lead to false memory.
137
Describe the sample of the second experiment.
- 150 students.
138
What was the IV and the DV?
- IV=type of question asked ("smashed," "hit."
- DV=whether they recalled broken glass or not.
139
Describe the procedure.
- Ptps were shown a 1 min film of a car driving, followed by it crashing.
- They were then asked questions about the speed of the cars.
- They were also asked "did you see the broken glass?" (there was no broken glass).
140
What were the findings?
- Those who were asked the question with the verb "smashed" recalled broken glass.
141
What did they conclude?
- Memory is easily distorted by the questions.
- Information acquired post-event can merge with original memory.
142
What are the ethical issues with this study?
- The films of the accidents may have been distressing.
> more ethical than watching it irl.
- Didn't know about leading questions.
> not fully informed consent.
- Deceived about the aim.
> helped avoid dcs.
143
How is the validity of this study?
- Lab.
> controlled and standardised.
- Low eco validity.
> ptps knew about study, not as emotionally involved, interviewed by researchers not police.
- Wasn't a real accident.
> lacks mundane realism.
144
Why is this study reliable?
- Easily replicable.
> videos, lab.
- Backed up by 2nd study.
145
How can this apply to real life?
Can influence how police interview eye-witnesses.
> cognitive interview.
146
What is an individual difference that can impact the study?
- Experience driving.
> more experienced drivers are better at estimating speed.
147
**CONTEMPORARY STUDY**
148
Who conducted this study?
Valentine and Mesout.
149
What was the aim of this study?
- Address the effect of heightened anxiety on ewt.
150
Explain the sample.
- 56 ptps.
- Agreed to complete questionnaires for reduced ticket prices.
- Unaware of the investigation.
151
Explain the procedure.
- Conducted in the London Dungeon's Labyrinth.
- Visitors experienced scary events.
> screaming skeleton, wounded man who'd block the path ('scary man').
- All ptps walked around the labyrith (7mins) and then the rest of the exhibits after (45 mins).
- Completed 3 questionnaires:
1. TAI=typical anxiety.
2. SAI=anxiety in the labyrinth.
3. Memory=scary person recall.
- Ptps were asked to identify the 'scary person' from a series of photos.
152
What were the findings?
- Mean SAI score was 49.
> higher than the mean TAI score=37.
- The Labyrinth was anxiety inducing.
- Higher anxiety=fewer correct reports.
- Only 17% who scored above mean anxiety correctly identified the 'scary person.'
- 75% of those who scored lower correctly identified 'scary person.'
153
What did they conclude?
- Eye-witness identification is impaired under high-anxiety.
- Memory is negatively affected by increased psychological arousal.
154
Give some weaknesses of the generalisability of this study.
- The London Dungeon is a tourist attraction.
- Only certain types of people visit these types of attractions.
> low anxiety, like to be scared.
155
Give some strengths of the controlled environment.
- Conducted the pre-test anxiety with another group.
> found similarity.
- Spent a standardised time in the Labyrinth and the rest of the dungeon.
- The 'scary person' was the same person for everyone.
156
Give some strengths of the ecological validity.
- Field study.
- Ptps didn't know they were part of a study.
- Aim of the study was revealed afterwards.
> reduced dcs-didn't know they'd be questioned on the 'scary person.'
> in real life, eye-witnesses don't know they're witnessing an important event.
157
What applications does this study have?
- Eye-witness accounts should be treated with caution.
> especially if it's traumatic and stressful.
- Anxiety can improve recall of central details.
158
Describe the ethics of this study.
- Lack of informed consent in the beginning.
- Ptps freely chose to involve themselves in the labyrinth.
- After the experienced the labyrinth, they gave consent and were given the rtw.
159
**FACTORS INFLUENCING JURY DECISION MAKING**
160
What are the factors that can affect jury decision making?
- Accent.
- Attractiveness.
- Race.
- Pre-trial publicity
161
How can accent influence jury decision making?
(AO1)
- People make judgements off of accents.
- Different regions and areas have different accents.
> different areas have stereotypical views
- If the jury view the accent of the defendant as coming from an unfavourable area they may be more likely to find them guilty.
> the opposite for a favourable area or unidentifiable accent.
162
Give some studies that support this factor?
(AO3)
- **Dixon and Mahoney**
> ptps were given transcripts and tapes with different accents.
> those with strong 'Brummie' accents were found to be more guilty.
> a black defendant with a strong B'ham accent was seen as more guilty than a white person with the same accent.
> been repeated twice-same results.
- **Cantone et al**
> people with Mexican-American accents were found guilty more than 'white sounding' speakers.
163
How can attractiveness influence jury decision making?
(AO1)
- Those who are found to be more attractive are less likely to be seen as guilty.
- Stereotypes generated through media.
> villains are ugly.
> heroes are attractive.
164
Give some studies that support this factor.
(AO3)
- **Sigall and Ostrove**
> ptps were asked to make a sentence for a defendant for burglary or fraud.
> 6 conditions.
> the defendant was sentenced to fraud for longer with the attractive photo.
> attractive people use their looks to con people.
> defendant sentenced to less time for burglary with the attractive photo
- **Saladin et al.**
> showed photos of 8 men.
> asked how capable they seemed of committing robbery/murder.
> unattractive men were considered to be more likely than the attractive men.
165
How can race influence jury decision making?
(AO1)
- Prejudice and discriminatory attitudes from stereotypes may influence the jury.
- If a defendant is a different race to the jury they may be treated less favourably.
- Most research focuses on relationship between white jurors and black/white defendants.
166
Give some studies that relating to this factor.
(AO3)
- **Stolnick and Shaw.**
> jury members of the same race as the defendant were less likely to find them guilty.
> white jurors were less likely to find black defendants guilty-didn't want to come off as racist.
- **Mazzella and Feingold.**
> meta-analysis (29).
> didn't find racial bias.
> other variables affected racial bias.
> black defendants given longer for homicide.
> white defendants given longer for fraud.
- **Baldus et al.**
> black defendants were given longer sentences if the victim was white.
167
How can pre-trail publicity influence jury decision making?
(AO1)
- We don't remember events exactly as we see them (reconstructive memory).
- We use schemas to rebuild events and make them make more sense to us.
- Misinformation effect (Loftus).
> info witnesses are exposed to after the event influences recall.
- Information can be spread in the news/media.
- Pre-trial publicity can cause jurors to make judgements about the defendant beforehand,
168
Give some studies that support this factor.
(AO3)
- **Steblay et al.**
> experimental group were given negative info, control were given no info.
> those exposed to pre-trial publicity were more likely to reach a guilty verdict.
> larger delay between judgement and pre-trial publicity had more of an impact.
- **Ogloff and Vidmar.**
> TV as pre-trial publicity.
> used a real child sexual abuse case.
> negative pre-trial publicty=negative bias.
> TV exposure had a larger effect than printed media.
169
**KEY QUESTION**
170
What is the Criminal Psychology key question?
Is eye-witness testimony too unreliable to trust?
171
Give some information about EWT.
(AO1)
- EWT=information given by witnesses after seeing an event.
- Can be recorded in police statements or as verbal court testimony.
- Relied on the most by jurors.
> easy to understand.
- Courts have to be cautious in relying solely on EWT.
- May sometimes be the only evidence for a case.
172
Give some research on EWT.
(AO3)
- Reconstructive memory.
> try to fit what we remember with what we already know.
> appearance may trigger schemas.
> influencing them to encode and recall them differently.
- Post-event information.
> may come across info in the time between the event and the trial.
> info is less open to distortion if it's central.
> peripheral is more likely to be forgotten.
> recognition is more likely to be incorrect than the recall.
- Stress and anxiety.
> higher anxiety=poorer recall.
> stress can negatively impact ewt.
> anxiety can lead to less features being recorded.
- Weapon focus.
> focus more closely on the weapon.
> Pickel-hair salon.
- Leading questions.
> wording of questions can affect how the witness recalls.
> car crash video.
173
**CASE STUDIES**
174
Who is this case study by?
Blagden et al.
175
What was the aim of this case study?
To investigate the usefulness of using repertory grids with sexual offenders in denial.
176
What are repertory grids?
- Look at someone's personality and the variables they use to understand people.
- Identifies the way a person interprets their experience.
- People have personal constructs about others.
177
What are personal constructs?
- A way of understanding people.
- We see people as mean or generous.
- We have different ways of understanding the people around us.
178
Give some background information for this case study.
- Treatment programmes for sex offenders focus on the offender accepting responsibility and overcoming denial.
> however, some people can't.
- 91% of programmes in the USA have accepting responsibility as the main target.
- Denial hasn't shown a risk of recedivism.
179
Who was this case study on?
- Bryan.
> 54 year old.
> male.
> 2 accounts of rape.
> denied it.
> saw the justice system as unfair.
> sceptical of treatment.
> willing to do a programme.
180
What was the method?
- Semi-structured interview.
- Bryan was asked to comment on 3 people.
- After personal constructs were noted, he rated them on a 7 point scale.
181
What were the findings?
- When Bryan defined himself some important constructs were:
> unsettled, sad, negative outlook on life.
- Bryan saw 'me now.'
> constructs were about low self-esteem, negative outlook and lonely.
- Bryan saw his 'ideal self' as unreachable.
- 'Victim' meant:
> uncaring, jealous, devious.
- 'Victim' was seen similarly to him.
> different, isolated.
182
What could some conclusions be?
- The features about himself were thought to be anxiety.
- Bryan's views may relate to his denial.
> explains isolation and reluctance to treatment.
- His views on the victim suggests he blames the victim and has little empathy.
