Criminal Behaviour

Question 1

Definition of crime

Answer 1

Any act of violence that violates the law as determined by the state

Question 2

Who identified characteristics for 5 top shelf crimes, what are they ?

Answer 2

Griffith

Sex offenders
- Individuals who engage in sexual contact with young children or adolescence
- Individuals who like inflicting pain or humiliation in others

Murderers type 1 (disorganised,asocial offender)
- Generally has a below average IQ
- Don’t date and live alone
- Low birth order

Murderers type 2 (organised, non social offender)
- Generally have above average IQ
- Tend to live with partner
- High birth order

Acquisitive criminals (fraud,burglary,extortion)
- Generally seek criminal activity for pleasure and thrill
- Some will take either an intelligence or economical reason behind crime

Terrorists
- Sometimes motivated politically or economically triggered issues of day
- Potential psychological defect that produces this errant behaviours or perception

Question 3

Who made Categories of crime, what are they?

Answer 3

Farr and Gibbons

• Property predatory crimes (attempting to or taking personal property of others without permission, burglary, theft)
• Property Fraudulent crime (deceit or manipulation with purpose of converting property or services of others to their own use, embezzlement, bribery)
• Interpersonal violence general (actions that threat or cause actual harm, murder, assault)
• Interpersonal violence sexual (actions that threaten or cause actual personal harm with sexual element (rape, incest)
• Transactional vice (persons involved in victimless offence, willing exchange of goods or services (prostitution, drug sales)
• Order disruption (involved in actions where no direct victim but concern raised about potential victims (disordered conduct, riots)
• Folk mundane crime ( broad category where persons involved in actions that range from minor violations like fishing without license to serious violations load regulations)

Question 4

Inherited Criminality (BIOLOGICAL 1)

Answer 4

• The genetic argument proposes that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour. Evidence for this comes from twin studies where identical MZ and non identical DZ twins are compared; higher concordance rate in MZ than DZ is evidence for genetic bases of criminality. Raine reviewed research on delinquent twins, found concordance rate of 52% in MZ compared to 21% in DZ.
• Two genes particularly linked to criminal behaviour are Monoamine oxidase and Cadherin 13. MAOA regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain and low levels of serotonin associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour. 1980s study of 28 male members of a Dutch family found that many of these male members behaved in a violent and aggressive way. These men found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA in their bodies and a defect on this gene (warrior gene) later identified by Bruner et Al. Finnish study by Tiihonen et al with 900 offenders found low MAOA activity and from CDH13 gene.
• Adrian Raine cited 71 brain imaging studies showing murderers, psychopaths, violent individuals have reduced functioning in prefrontal cortex, area of brain responsible for regulating emotion and controlling behaviour. Lowered activity in this area associated with impulsiveness and a loss of control
• Researchers (Seo et Al ) suggest that low levels of serotonin may predispose individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour, partly due to neurotransmitter normally inhibiting the prefrontal cortex. Raised dopamine may enhance this effect. Very low and high levels of noradrenaline have been associated with aggression, violence and criminality.
• Current thinking proposes an interplay where genes are switched on or off according to environmental factors, a diatheses stress. One possibility is maltreatment as a child, Capsi et Al conducted a 500 male children study and discovered a variant of the gene associated with high levels of MAOA and low levels of MAOA. Those with low levels were significantly more likely to grow up to be antisocial only if maltreated as a child. Those with high levels of MAOA who were maltreated and those with low levels who were not maltreated did not display antisocial behaviour.

Question 5

Strength of Inherited Criminality

Answer 5

• In addition to twin studies, adoption studies are able to supply further empirical support to explanation. A study over 14,000 adoptions in Denmark found that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents (Mainly fathers) with criminal convictions. Rhee and Waldmans meta analysis of twin and adoption studies MZ twins were more similar in antisocial behaviour than DZ twins. Such research validates and makes genetic explanation of criminal behaviour harder to argue against

Question 6

Weaknesses of Inherited criminality

Answer 6

• Highly deterministic, believers of genetic approach to criminality would suggest individuals enter into criminal life because behaviour is controlled by internal factors beyond their control. They don’t believe individuals have ability to choose how to behave and exercise their free will. However humans are capable of high level processing so individual can choose how to behave. Tiihonen et Al found those with defective gene 13 times more likely to have violent history, however shows that not all those with the gene become criminals.
• Limitation is that there is a lack of validity in studies that consider genetic factors in criminality as usually involve highly biased samples. Therefore cannot assume that these findings can be generalised to the overall population. Male only samples cannot represent females, ignoring half the population. Furthermore, males in question also highly unusual as they have been convicted of violent crime so difficult to draw conclusions. Also violent attacks are very few compared to general violence so only represent a small minority. May mean that genetic explanation of criminal behaviour not actually able to account for criminal activity in large groups of population.
• Most of genetic and neural research on criminal behaviour relates to the association between violence and criminal behaviour. At best, biological explanations only account for certain types of crime like violent or psychopathic. Evidence that those traits is inherited like Blonigen et al, found evidence to suggest psychopathic trait is inherited in over 600 male and female twins. However Findlay suggest crime is not a natural category, rather a social construction, includes many types of crime like theft, fraud drugs that are non violent that are not accounted for. This make it difficult to argue that all criminality can be explained in terms of one’s genes and interaction with environment.

Question 7

Biological method of modifying

Answer 7

• Genetic research completed via twin studies and gene mapping have identified two genes particularly implicated in violent criminal behaviour . Those are the MAOA and Cadherin 13 gene.
• People who inherit such genes have an increased risk of criminal behaviour
• Modern research attempts to restructure an individual’s genetic composition so that undesirable traits caused by defective genes can be eradicated
• For example, it might be possible to replace a defective warrior gene with a normal one in a fertilised ovum. Families at increased risk could be identified for genetic engineering
• However, such research is in its infancy and some people view this as highly unethical due to suggesting that it involves playing God.

Question 8

Role of Amygdala (BIOLOGICAL 2)

Answer 8

• The amygdala was first linked to criminal behaviour by Papez and Maclean. It is highly connected, neutrally linked to the hypothalamus, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Therefore it has widespread influence in brain functioning and behaviours associated with emotion, motivation, social interaction in humans and NHA. Plays major role in how we assess and respond to threats, hence its relevance in determining aggressive behaviour
• Coccaro et Al investigated effects of amygdala on aggression by studying people with intermittent explosive disorder (IED), common symptoms are outbursts of anger and aggression. Each ppt had fmri scan of brain while viewing images of angry faces. Key difference between pps showed as those with IED showed high levels of amygdala activity when viewing angry faces. This finding demonstrates an association between amygdala activity and processing of aggressive emotions. Study had high realism as angry facial expression is everyday signal of danger and threat.
• Gao et Al points out as children we learn to inhibit aggressive and antisocial behaviours through fear conditioning, we learn aggressive behaviour leads to punishment. As a result, dysfunction in amygdala would mean child not able to identify social cues that indicate threat like angry faces, therefore doesn’t link punishment to aggressive behaviour. Fear conditioning interrupted and outcome is that individual with amygdala dysfunction seems fearless, antisocial, overly aggressive.
• This was demonstrated through a longitudinal study where 1795 pps were tested for fear conditioning at the age of 3. Measure used was physical arousal (indicated by sweating) in response to painful noise. Twenty years later, researchers found those who had committed crimes at age 23 had shown no fear conditioning when they were 3 years old, effectively fearless. This suggests a causal relationship between amygdala dysfunction and criminal behaviour

Question 9

Strength of Role of Amydala

Answer 9

Empirical evidence which is difficult to argue against. Gospic et Al used the ultimatum game, a lab based method of measuring aggressive behaviour. Involves two players, proposer and responder. Proposer offers to split money in a fair or unfair way (unfair should be perceived as threat). If responder accepts, money is split accordingly. If responder refuses the offer, both get nothing. Rejection of offer interpreted as aggressive behaviour. The study’s pps played the role of responder and results from an fmri scan suggested when responders rejected unfair offers, amygdala activity heightened. Therefore strong evidence shows an association between reactive aggression and increased amygdala activity, supports proposal of amygdala implications in criminal behaviour.

Question 10

Weakness of Role of amygdala

Answer 10

Important to recognise that amygdala is part of wider system of connected brain structures and does not operate on its own to determine aggressive criminal behaviour. Functions with orbital frontal cortex located in prefrontal cortex which is thought to influence self control, regulate impulsive behaviour and inhibit aggression. Raine et Al investigated murderers who had used overwhelming aggression in their crimes. These had higher glucose metabolism in their amygdala, but abnormally low metabolism in prefrontal cortex.

Question 11

Eysenck criminal personality (INDIVIDUAL 1)

Answer 11

• Eysencks theory of personality is based upon the idea that character traits such as moodiness and talkativeness tend to cluster along three dimensions and these have a genetic basis. An individuals adult personality is therefore a mix of biological tendencies combined with learning experiences. An individuals personality traits can explain why some people commit crimes
• The first dimension is extraversion; this trait describes differences between people in their social interactions, positive emotions and impulsivity. Highly extroverted people are generally outgoing, energetic positive
• Next is neuroticism, it is a long term tendency to be in a negative or anxious emotional state. People with neuroticism tend to have more depressed moods, and suffer from feelings of guilt, anger, anxiety.
• Finally, psychoticism is a dimension characterised by aggression, impulsiveness, aloofness and antisocial behaviour, indicating a susceptibility to psychopathic disorders.
• Eysenck also suggested that each trait has a biological basis which is mainly innate, he claimed 67% of variance is due to genetic factors.
• Extroverts tend to be bored easily and crave excitement. They are more likely to thrill seek and take risks due to Eysencks suggestion that they inherit an under aroused nervous system and so seek stimulation to restore optimum stimulation
• A person with neuroticism level is based on the reactivity of their sympathetic nervous system. A stable persons nervous system will generally be less reactive to stressful situations however neurotics tend to overreact and be quick to worry, be over emotional.
• A psychotic individual would lack empathy and be more aggressive and troublesome. The higher the testosterone, the higher the level of psychoticism, with low levels related to normal people.
• The link between personality and criminal behaviour can be linked in terms of arousal. Extroverts seek more arousal so enter into dangerous activities resulting in criminal activity such as robbery for pleasure. Neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to overreact to situations of threat, which could explain criminal activity. Psychotics can be easily linked to criminality as they are aggressive and lack empathy, examples of crime include rape, murder.
• Eysenck also believed an individual is born with a personality but interaction with environment is essential in onset of criminality. In a normal person, wrong-doing avoided because of previous punishment through operant conditioning. However Eysenck claimed people with high extraversion and neuroticism were less easily conditioned therefore learnt not to avoid antisocial behaviour.

Question 12

Strengths of Eysencks Personality

Answer 12

• Additional support for a link between one’s personality and criminal behaviour. Research conducted has compared the personalities of criminals and non criminals. Dunlop et Al found both extraversion and psychoticism were both good predictors of delinquency. However, delinquency was assessment of minor offences. Contradicting dunlops results is a study by coleta van dam et Al that found only a small group of male offenders had scores on all three of Eysencks variables. This suggests there is conflicting evidence as to whether personality and criminal behaviour link to each other.
• Further supportive evidence has strengthened Eysencks personality has biological basis. Zuckerman found via twin studies a +0.52 correlation in MZ twins for neuroticism compared with +0.24 for DZ. Extraversion was +0.51 for MZ and +0.12 for DZ. However can’t conclude whether half of variation is due to genes, could also be product of shared environment. Implies that other factors are important in determining personality as one’s biology.

Question 13

Weaknesses of Eysencks personality

Answer 13

• Theory based on personal it has to adopt stance personality is fixed. However, it’s suggested some people may be consistent in similar situations but not across other. Some may be consistently relaxed at home but neurotic at work. Mischel supported theory with research where they found 63 students had no correlation with traits displayed in different environments. Therefore notion of criminal personality flawed as it’s too simplistic.
• Additionally, score or label give to any person depends on the answers they provide to a personality questionnaire, they are asked to select what traits apply to them, their responses may not reflect reality. Pps may favour socially desirable answer to come across as acceptable in eyes of researcher. Therefore personality scores unlikely to enable identification of criminals as its bit strong predictor .

Question 14

Individual differences method of modifying

Answer 14

• It appears that those who fail to develop a sophisticated sense of moral understanding are at increased risk of criminal behaviour, due to focus on their own needs or lack of concern for others.
• Therefore, if we increase people’s capacity to perform at higher level of morality, we should also reduce crime as a result
• Kohlberg believe this would be possible through biological maturation and life experience
• Kohlberg observed that those raised with Israeli kibbutz were more morally advanced than those not (special community when adult members are equal to biological parents)
• Kohlberg helped set up a number of cluster schools in schools and prisons, the aim was to encourage each person to have a sense of commitment and responsibility for organisation, reducing chance of criminality

Question 15

Moral development (INDIVIDUAL 2)

Answer 15

• Kohlberg developed a theory of moral reasoning through interviewing boys and men about reasons for their moral decisions using Heinz dilemmas. As a result, Kohlberg developed a stage theory of moral development, each stage represented an advanced level of moral understanding
• According to Kohlberg there are 3 levels of moral reasoning and each level can be further sub-divided into two stages. People progress through these stages as a result of their biological maturation and through their experiences which allow them to develop their thinking.
• In a longitudinal study, Kohlberg found that 10% of adults reach the post conventional level which means the most common level of moral understanding is the conventional level. Adults at this stage who break the law would feel their behaviour was justified because it helps them to maintain relationships e.g. break law to protect family or others.
• Most criminals are most likely to be at the pre conventional level as they believe breaking the law is justified if rewards outweigh the costs and punishment can be avoided. Stage 2 is where individuals view actions as right if they satisfy their own needs. May cause someone to act selfish and burgle someone’s house if they believe they will escape.
• This fits with the age of criminal responsibility as in England and wales, children under 10 cannot be charged with a crime because it’s believed they don’t have concept of moral responsibility, thought to be at pre conventional level. In Kohlberg study, just under 20% of children at age 10 were at stage 1, 60% at stage 2

Question 16

Strength of moral development

Answer 16

• Strength between Kohlberg theory of moral development and criminal behaviour is seen in research evidence available. Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson used their offending motivation questions to assess 128 male juvenile offenders. The found 38% did not consider the consequences of what they were doing and 36% were confident they would not be caught. This links to moral development as most criminals in pre conventional level believe breaking the law is justified for a reward. This suggests that the connection between moral reasoning and criminal activity can be confirmed and so appears valid.

Question 17

Weaknesses of moral development

Answer 17

• Major weaknesses is that it is gender biased. Put forward by Gilligan who argued that women operate quite a different sense of moral principles, an ethic of care. It’s likely Kohlberg scheme was biased towards male morality because early pps were male. This bias might explain why Kohlberg claimed women were less morally developed than males as women were measured against make standard. Suggests a lack of look,action validity in regards to Kohlbergs theory of moral development.

Question 18

Differential association theory (SOCIAL 1)

Answer 18

• This explanation particularly focuses on influence of learning association. Sutherland proposed differential association theory suggesting offending behaviour can be explained in terms of social learning, suggests people are socialised into crime.
• Differential association theory suggests that frequency of how long people associate with others who have more/less favourable attitudes towards crime influence own attitudes and behaviour
• As children, we learn attitudes towards crime such as whether it is desirable or undesirable. Potential criminals learn to adopt a pro criminal attitude. Children will also learn which types of crime should be considered most and least desirable, e.g. burglary acceptable but violence is not. They may also learn specific methods for crime
• Attitudes are acquired from one’s intimate personal groups, family/peers. Criminal attitudes also learned from interacting in one’s community. Degree to which local community supports or opposes crime determines differences in crime rates. Individuals or social groups do not actually have to be criminals, rather hold deviant attitudes that promote criminality
• Sutherland suggested that frequency, length and personal meaning of association determine degree of influence. Likely to be in line with Banduras social learning theory and concepts of operant conditioning.
• A child may be directly reinforced for deviant behaviour through praise or punished for such behaviour by family and peers. Role models would provide opportunities to model behaviours, if role models are successful in crime, provides vicarious reinforcement. Social groups also establish social norms by which behaviours is defined.

Question 19

Strengths of differential association theory

Answer 19

• Strength is supportive evidence available. Osborn and West found that where there is a father with a criminal conviction, 40% of sons had also committed a crime by the age of 18, compared to only 13% of sons of non criminal fathers. Highly possible that shared criminal behaviour could be down to genetics. However lack of 100% concordance or sharing in criminal behaviours between father and son, suggesting atrial involvement of environment. This suggests that there is some relevance in further investigation of friends and family influence on criminal behaviour, cautioned should be maintained when determining exact cause of behaviour.
• Additional evidence from Akers et Al who surveyed 2500 male and females adolescents in US to investigate drug and drink behaviour. Akers found most important influence on this form of criminal behaviour was from peers, differential association. Despite such evidence, research in this are criticised for correlational nature of number of associates one has in criminal attitudes. Therefore cause and effect can’t be established as it could be criminals seek friends who are also criminals as opposed to peer influence. Therefore although evidence available, several uncertainties as to what ratio of influence needed to start criminality.

Question 20

Weaknesses of differential association

Answer 20

• Limited as it cannot account for all kinds of crime. Appears logical that social learning influences confined to smaller crimes rather than violent impulsive offences like rape, murder. However smaller crimes account for bigger percentage of crimes committed in England and Wales. Therefore understanding these smaller crimes can help reduce criminal behaviour overall. People also begin to consider social factors rather than individual factors. Therefore explanation worthy of consideration as if social factors are at heart if criminality, and create a safer community.
• Supportive evidence available from Cambridge study on delinquency. Longitudinal study conducted on 411 males from 8-10 found up to 41% of pps held at least one conviction. Most significant factor for later reoffending rates were family criminality, poor parenting, low school attainment. However despite this evidence, difficult to generalise to rest of population as study is only males, not accounting female delinquency. Suggests that although evidence to support differential association theory, lack of population validity as female population not considered.

Question 21

Social method of modifying

Answer 21

• It appears that a significant risk factor for criminal behaviour is gender, 96% of prison populations made up of males.
• Males are socialised to be leader, tough, risk takers, competitive, such characteristics may increase likelihood of entering into unlawful behaviours e.g. not backing down from fight
• Therefore, men need to be socialised differently to reduce criminal behaviour
• Males could be provided with more feminine strategies for conflict management and media could present males as being less aggressive and risk taking
• Schemes such as the Man up project support men in exploring ways to challenge stereotypes and expectations placed on them by society

Question 22

Gender socialisation (SOCIAL 2)

Answer 22

• The current prison population in England and Wales show there are 96% males and 4% females. This could provide evidence for gender socialisation where we learn norms, customs and skills that are different for each gender
• Sutherland claimed that during socialisation, boys are encouraged to take risks whereas girls are not. This may result in greater criminality for boys; aggressive behaviour praised for boys which leads to criminality.
• Banduras social learning theory suggests we learn about gender behaviours through imitation of role models. Girls role models tend to be mothers, boys their fathers. Girls have easy access to mothers however fathers have elusive role, less available for sons
• As a result, boys revel against socialisation offered by mothers especially feminine traits. Boys develop masculinity through any opportunities they get such as all male peer groups. These may reward masculine behaviour.
• There are also differences in social control as suggested by Heidenshon where women are controlled at home, work, public. Girls can’t stay out out as long as sons, also required to do more chores. As adults, women have lower opportunities to commit crime as greater time and movement restrictions on them. Glass ceiling in work prevents women promoting, in public way media report crimes such as rape increase fear of being alone at night, thus staying home, lower crime opportunities.

Question 23

Strength of gender socialisation

Answer 23

• Explanation of criminality seen in practical applications. The Man up project is designed to support groups of young men in various settings to consider expected values and social norms that are expected of a man. Aims to nurture new perspectives and limit peer pressure. Found a significant reduction in toughness and increased self esteem after a doubt blind review. Suggest that practical applications help to change perspectives and stereotypes that are placed upon men.

Question 24

Weakness of gender socialisation

Answer 24

• A weakness of gender socialisation theory comes in form of chivalry hypothesis. Pollock claimed judges and police are chivalrous to women. They would be treated differently and not be convicted. However this has proven to be out related as per evidence by Heisenhoden et Al which revealed in England, Wales and 35 other countries, no evidence was found in the treatment of females to be lenient. This suggest that the gender of those serving in criminal justice system may be responsible for low number of females in criminal stats. Demonstrates flaw in gender socialisation explanation.

Question 25

Method of modifying 1
Anger management

Answer 25

• Anger management is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy used in the control of criminal behaviour where the individual will learn to reconceptualise anger
• Anger management has two broad aims, first to reduce anger and aggression in prison. Novaco described prisons as efficient anger factories due to overcrowding, violence. Second aim to reduce recidivism (reoffending) especially in case of violent criminals
• CBT and anger management suggest much abnormal behaviour occurs as result of disordered thinking. Criminals are also likely to hold a hostile attribution bias (inclined to think the worst). Such negative interpretations increase anger.
• Anger management will aim to change the way a person handles their anger and aggression. The situation itself may not be changeable, but a person can change the way they think about it
• e.g. if a person was to stare at you, rather than thinking the worst and lash out, person would be encouraged to ignore the other person.
• Novaco felt any anger management programme should have 3 core features, cognitive restructuring which is having greater self control and awareness of anger, regulation of arousal which is learning to recognise and control physical state of anger and behavioural control strategies which is training in areas such as problem solving skills.
• Most anger management programmes are based principles identified by Novaco. His model draws on characteristic of stress inoculation training, another CBT form, which aims to protect an individual from future ‘infections’.
• The key features of SIT are conceptualisation; where clients learn about anger generally, how it can be helpful and unhelpful as well as recognising their own patterns of anger. Skills acquisition is where clients are taught various skills to help manage their anger through relaxation. Communication skills are also taught so conflicts can be resolved without need for aggression.
  Application is where clients are increasingly taught to apply the skills to real world scenarios beginning in a controlled role play situation.

Question 26

Effectiveness Anger Management

Answer 26

Strength

. Anger management programmes generally successful in reducing anger as shown by Novacos six meta analysis which showed 75% improvement rates. Landenberger and Lipsey analysed 58 studies using CBT with offenders, 20 of these studies used anger control as key element. Having it as control element significantly related to improvement. However howells et Al conducted 5 meta analysis which showed only moderate benefits of anger management

Weakness

. Relationship between anger and crime unclear. Loza and loza fanous claim that research that has linked anger and crime is based on laboratory studies using students. In their own study of 300 male prisoners, they found no difference in anger of violent and non violent criminals. This may also lead to criminals not taking personal responsibility and use anger as an excuse. This suggests relationship cannot be fully developed between anger and crime

Question 27

Ethical implications anger management

Answer 27

. Ethical issues arise in anger management as offenders are generally urged to take part in anger management therapy which goes against ethical code of voluntary consent, however it does state where appropriate, participation can continue under valid informed consent, cost valued up against benefits.

Question 28

Social implications of anger management

Answer 28

. Beneficial in reducing reoffending rates which cut costs to judicial/prison system. Recidivism cost the costs the economy approximately at least £9.5 billion per year. If offenders learn to control behaviour once released from prison, may prevent them committing future crimes. This benefits communities as it will be safer and cost effective.

Question 29

Method of modifying 2
Restorative justice

Answer 29

• Restorative justice aims to modify criminal behaviour by opening up channels of communication between offender and victim
• Offers the opportunity for the criminal to right the wrong of the situation they created by giving payment as compensation, writing a letter or engaging in face to face meanings, failiure of custodial sentences result in restorative justice being centre of criminology.
• First aim of restorative justice is rehabilitation of offenders. The victim has the opportunity to explain the impact of the crime on their lives so that the offender can appreciate the impact of the crime on their lives, so offender can appreciate the repercussions of actions. It increases ability of offender to consider others perspectives, develop empathy which should reduce reoffending.
• Second aim is atonement of wrongdoing which is to reverse the wrong of an offender by offering physical compensation like money or unpaid labour but mostly a psychological compensation by showing guilt or remorse.
• From the victims perspective, restorative justice can be beneficial in reducing their sense of victimisation and increasing their understanding of the offenders actions may reduce the victims sense of fear of harm
• Watchel and McCold suggest that emphasis of restorative justice should be on the formulation of relationships between victim and offender rather than punishment
• Successful restorative justice requires 3 stakeholders, the victim who seeks reparation, the offender who takes responsibility and the community who aims to achieve reconciliation to move forward productively. Only if all 3 are involved can full restoration be achieved

Question 30

Effectiveness restorative justice

Answer 30

Strengths

. Good evidence that victims who have taken part in restorative justice schemes feel it was beneficial. Uk restorative justice council reported a 85% satisfaction from victims face to face meetings with offenders. A large range of different crime were covered from theft to violent crime. Victims also claim a greater satisfaction than when cases go to court

. Research indicates that aim of reducing reoffending rates also have been achieved. Sherman and Strang reviewed 20 studies of face to face meetings between offender and victim in the US, UK and Australia. All studies showed reduced reoffending rates

Question 31

Ethical implications restorative justice

Answer 31

. One major ethical concern is risk of harm to victim. They make feel worse after coming face to face with the offender, leading to low self esteem. Victim may feel criminal showed no empathy and taken advantage of. Furthermore victim may use opportunity to shame the offender also causing psychological harm, in reverse so programmes need to be balanced ensuring benefits to both parties

Question 32

Social implication of restorative justice

Answer 32

. Uk has very large prison population, greater than other European countries, and one of key aims of restorative justice is to reduce reoffending rates. Restorative justice claimed that reduced reoffending means that £8 is saved for every £1 that is spent on restorative justice. Also some programmes are paid by the offender themselves. Therefore it can provide substantial financial benefits to society