Criminal

Question 1

What is meant by Crime?

Answer 1

An offence against the public law. Usually leads to a felony

E.g. manslaughter, murder, rape, theft

Question 2

What is meant by Anti Social Behaviour?

Answer 2

An offence that is not necessarily against the law, but causes distress + upset to others

E.g. Being noisy, Profanity, Vandalism

Question 3

What is Criminal Psychology?

Answer 3

Criminal psychology involves applying psychological theories + methods to investigations of crime. Psychology can provide theories as to why people commit crimes, how to catch criminals (through offender profiling), the reliability of EWTs, factors affecting JDM, and techniques for treating criminals + preventing crime.

Question 4

How can we apply Biological Psychology to Crime?

Answer 4

Certain negative behaviours, mental illnesses + abnormalities may be passed onto a child through their genes, resulting in them being more likely to commit crime

A person’s identity can be discovered through their DNA (e.g. hair samples + fingerprints)

Question 5

How can we apply Cognitive Psychology to Crime?

Answer 5

By understanding a person’s mental processes, a psychologist is able to understand their behaviour

The memory of a person is susceptible to distortion

By perceiving a person’s perception, one may be able to predict their behaviour

Question 6

How can we apply Learning Psychology to Crime?

Answer 6

SLT - watching criminal activity and developing behaviours through vicarious reinforcement

They may have learnt that criminal behaviour may result in positive reward (e.g. money)

Gender roles + stereotyping

Question 7

How can we apply Social Psychology to Crime?

Answer 7

A persons attitudes and prejudices may affect their behaviour - e.g. authority

Peer pressure and conformity may affect a person’s behaviour – e.g. deinviduation and group dynamic

Societal values and culture may ultimately affect behaviour

Question 8

What are Labels?

Answer 8

Broad terms are given/used to describe an individual, or a group of people with shared unique characteristics/interests

An inferior group has negative connotations around their labels, which are based on stereotypes, and may result in prejudice or discrimination

Once a label has been ascribed to an individual/ group of people, they may be treated according to that label.

Question 9

What are Stereotypes?

Answer 9

An overgeneralised belief about someone or something, typically based on limited information

This can influence our attitude or behaviour towards others, which may result in prejudice and discrimination.

Question 10

What is meant by Retrospective Labelling?

Answer 10

Using the past to explain current events/labels

E.g. if someone is labelled as a criminal, someone who’s known them since they were younger may say “he was always bad”

Question 11

What is meant by Projective Labelling?

Answer 11

Using a label to say what will happen to that person in the future

E.g. someone may say “he will soon get into trouble with the law”

Question 12

What is meant by Self Fulfilling Prophecy?

Answer 12

People give labels to an individual, which somewhat puts pressure on them to act in that expected way.
They then fulfill those ‘expectations’, leading to them acting in that way.

It changes their self-identity over time, which eventually makes them conform to those labels.

Question 13

What was Becker’s 1963 Labelling Theory?

Answer 13

Refers to how someone’s view of themselves comes from the terms used to describe them; and how self identity is shaped by how someone is classified in society.

Explains that deviance is not a ‘thing’, but a label given too minorities by majorities to isolate them and show their behaviour is outside cultural norms.

This is where the negativity of labelling comes from.

Question 14

What is meant by ‘Stigma’?

Answer 14

A negative powerful label that affects someone’s self-concept.

Question 15

What is Official Bias?

Answer 15

Refer to the way the justice system looks more at criminal families, resulting in a higher chance of conviction for those families as they’re more focused on.

Question 16

What are the Gender Differences regarding Labelling + SFP?

Answer 16

Girls are more likely to be supervised//controlled, and are expected to be more ‘caring and disciplined’

Boys’ behaviour is generally seen as being less disciplined, and they are more risk takers. There’s also a “boys will be boys” connotation around certain careless acts.

Therefore, boys are seen as more likely to commit criminal behaviour.

Question 17

What are the evaluation points for Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy?

Answer 17

Jahoda (1954)
Madon et al (2004)
Rosenthal + Jacobson (1968)

Evaluation of each Research Evidence
Individual Differences
Credibillity
Ethical Issues

Question 18

How does Jahoda’s study Support Labelling +Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 18

The Ashanti tribe has expectations for the personality of boys, depending on the day of the week they were born.

Jahoda found Monday boys are considered quiet + easy-going, and 6.9% of violent criminals are born on Monday.
Wednesday boys are considered aggressive + short-tempered, and 22% of violent criminals are born on Wednesday.

This shows they conformed to the labels given to them.

(The study only used Ashanti (Ghanaian) boys)

Question 19

How does Madon’s study Support Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 19

Those children whose parents expected them to drink more alcohol did actually drink more. They did not find a similar significant difference in outcome when one nor both parents underestimated their child’s alcohol used.

This suggests negative SFP may have greater effect on behaviour than positive ones

(Findings are mainly used for parental relationships

Question 20

How does Rosenthal + Jacobson’s study Support Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 20

They found that pupils labelled ‘spurters’ (bright) by a false IQ test significantly improved in their next IQ performance, compared to those who weren’t labelled as ‘spurters’.

This supports the idea that labels/expectations can results in the prophecies coming true.

(Finding are mainly used in school environments)

Question 21

What Individual Differences may affect Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 21

SFP doesn’t take into account how an individual learns the anti-social or criminal behaviour they are expected to carry out.

(an alternative theory to explain crime/ASB is SLT which does ASB/Criminal behaviour on the individual)

Question 22

What are the Ethical Issues surrounding Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 22

Deterministic:
Some argue it is deterministic to explain criminal/ASB through labelling + SFP, as it suggests individuals have little free will, and are programmed to become criminals or demonstrate ASB, according to labelling.

Reductionism:
SFP fails to account for factors that may influence an individuals behaviour. It excludes the interconnected of biological and social factors.

We cannot experimentally test the effects of SPF/Labelling due to ethics - to create criminal by treating them differently would be immoral.

Question 23

Why is Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB not Credible?

Answer 23

We cannot physically test whether Labelling/SFP is the sole reason for criminal/ASB, as based on beliefs

Question 24

What is Self-Denying Prophecy?

Answer 24

Labelled individuals can go against labels related to criminal/ anti-social behaviour

Question 25

What is an Alternative Theory to Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 25

Labelling + SFP fails to take biological factors.

Those committing crime/ASB could be a result of them having the (MAOA) ‘warrior gene’ or high levels of testosterone in the body that could result in criminal/ ASB

Question 26

What are the 4 stages of modelling (SLT)?

Answer 26

1. Attention (the behaviour is observed and the role model is given attention)
2. Retention (the behaviour is retained)
3. Reproduction (the behaviour is reproduced)
4. Motivation (there must be motivation to do the behaviour)

Question 27

What is Operant Learning, and how does it link with crime / antisocial behaviour?

Answer 27

Uses principles of vicarious reinforcement

You observe others being rewarded or punished for behaviour (e.g. criminal behaviour leads to punishment, making less people want to commit crime)

Question 28

How does negative and positive reinforcement lead to crime/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 28

Positive Reinforcement: involves receiving something good for an action, reinforcing it to be repeated.
(e.g. robbery leads to the addition of more things you want)

Negative Reinforcement: when a burden/something bad is removed when a certain behaviour is repeated
(e.g. robbery leads to the reduction in financial problems)

Question 29

What 3 things did Bandura think determined whether a not a model was imitated?

Answer 29

1. Vicarious Consequences- if the observer views the crime as victimless (e.g. shoplifting); the amount of punishment/reward received
2. External Motivation- when behaviour’s been copied, operant conditioning occurs to determine whether they’ll repeat that behaviour
3. Self Reinforcement - how much it satisfies the person

Question 30

How does Bandura, Ross and Ross’ experiment support SLT as an explanation of crime/ASB?

Answer 30

They investigated modelling + SLT in their Bobo Doll Experiment

Behaviour was imitated more by same sex role models
Children were more likely to imitate the aggressive role models
Boys were more easily influenced by aggressive behaviour

Question 31

What type of role models are likely to be imitated (Modelling)?

Answer 31

Observational learning can only take place where someone identifies with another person in the same way (role model)

They’re likely to be of the same sex, roughly the same age, share similar interests and are likely to be a person of power, success and/or fame.

Question 32

What are the positives about social learning theory as an explanation of crime/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 32

There is lots of evidence to show that behaviour gets imitated; including how aggressive behaviour gets copied

Practical Application: the principles can be used to rehabilitate offenders, using good role models to reinforce appropriate behaviour, with appropriate reinforcements.

Question 33

What are the negatives about social learning theory as an explanation of crime/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 33

Doesn’t regard individual differences
It only regards social factors, and not biological factors; making it reductionist

It doesn’t provide an explanation for opportunistic crime which hasn’t been observed and learnt first

It mainly applies to light crimes, and not crimes like murder, rape, etc.

Question 34

How can a brain injury be caused?

Answer 34

Traumatic Brain Injury

Long term alcohol / drug use

Question 35

How can Traumatic Brain Injury occur?

Answer 35

Traumatic brain injury occurs directly as a result of trauma on the brain

e.g. being involved in a car accident, falling and injuring the head, or being assaulted in the head

Question 36

How does Long Term Alcohol use lead to brain injury?

Answer 36

Alcohol has a toxic effect on the CNS, and interferes with vitamin B1 (thiamine) absorption. Vitamin B1 is an important brain nutrient

Drunkenness can impair balance or decision making, and also contributes to an increase in falls + accidents that may injure the brain

Question 37

What are the Consequences of Brain Injury?

Answer 37

The consequence of brain injury depends on the area of the brain which has been injured; as different parts of the bran are responsible for different skills

Question 38

How can an injury to the Amygdala lead to criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 38

Increase in:

impulsive behaviour
irritability
aggression

Question 39

How can TBI lead to criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 39

TBI can affect temperament, temperance (self-restraint from drinking alcohol), and control impulses.

Greater level of risk-taking behaviour.

Question 40

How can an injury to the pre-frontal cortex lead to criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 40

The consequences of head injury (particularly the pre-frontal lobes) include:

Reduced awareness of emotions,
Loss of memory + concentration,
Poor control over impulses
Poor social judgement.

Question 41

What are the Gender Differences regarding brain injury as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 41

The NHS website reporting on brain injury suggests that: young people are most at risk of TBI, it affects 8.5% of the population, with males more at risk than females.

Other research also indicates that being male is a risk factor for showing ASB + violence: More males suffering from a TBI may be due to how they’re more likely to be involved in car accidents, fights, etc.

It seems that the biological exp. of brain injury as a cause does not show gender differences in the biology of men + women from birth, but it shows gender differences in people experiencing TBI.

Question 42

What are the Evaluation Points of Brain Injury as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 42

Phineas Gage
Williams et al
Credibility

Reductionism
Kreutzer
Diaz (1995)

Question 43

How does Phineas Gage support Brain Injury as explanation of Criminal/ Anti-Social Behaviour?

Answer 43

Gage got a 3.1ft metal pole struck in his head, damaging his prefrontal lobe. The wound physically healed, but he permanently became very vulgar + aggressive.

He’s a real life example that demonstrates the effect o brain injury and modification in behaviour that can become criminal

Question 44

How does Williams et al support Brain Injury as explanation of Criminal/ Anti-Social Behaviour?

Answer 44

He found that 60% of the 196 prisoners they investigated had received some from of TBI, due to falling, car accidents + sports activities

Some adults with TBI were relatively younger at entry in prison than those without brain injury, and reported higher rates of repeat offending.

Question 45

Is using Brain Injury as explanation of Criminal/ Anti-Social Behaviour Credible?

Answer 45

Yes, as it comes from studies and case studies using brain scanning techniques, which are also completed in a scientific + standardised way.

Question 46

How is Brain Injury as explanation of Criminal/ Anti-Social Behaviour Reductionist?

Answer 46

There are other factors relating to criminal behaviour which can relate to criminal/ASB (e.g. being young, a male, witnessing violence in the family, etc.)

Even though some studies show a relationship, it’s hard to pinpoint brain injury alone as a cause of criminal behaviour

Question 47

How does Kreutzer challenge Brain Injury as explanation of Criminal/ Anti-Social Behaviour?

Answer 47

In their investigation of 74 patients, they concluded that criminal behaviour might be a result of post-injury changes, including poor judgement.

Following further research, they concluded that TBI was not a risk factor of criminal behaviour, without the presence of a substance use history.

Question 48

How does Diaz challenge Brain Injury as explanation of Criminal/ Anti-Social Behaviour?

Answer 48

Diaz points out that there are individual differences in brain injury; making it hard to draw strong conclusions that a certain brain injury will lead to certain behaviour.

When there are individual differences, issues about generalisability are subsequently raised.

Question 49

What is the role of the amygdala?

Answer 49

The amygdala is responsible for dealing with human emotions.

Question 50

What can damage to the amygdala result in?

Answer 50

Damage to the amygdala can result in a person becoming unemotional, or they may react aggressively to their emotions as they cannot reduce them.

Question 51

What did Pardini et al find?

Answer 51

Smaller amygdalae have been fond among individuals diagnosed with psychopathic personalities

Individuals with smaller amygdalae were 3 times more likely to exhibit aggression, violence and psychopathic tendencies.

Question 52

How can amygdala functioning lead to criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 52

There is reduced amygdala functioning in people with psychopathic tendencies

Psychopathic individuals have reduced amygdala functioning during moral-decision making.

Question 53

What is Sham Rage, and how does this link to the amygdala?

Answer 53

Cannon + Briton severed neural connections to the cortex of cats.

When these cats were provoked, they expressed behaviour normally associated with aggression (erect hair, growling and the baring of teeth).

They called this behaviour ‘sham rage’.

It is now understood that the source of the rage came from the amygdala.

Question 54

What are the gender differences regarding the amygdala being an explanation of crime/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 54

Shirtcliff et al:
Empathy is shown more in girls, and conduct disorder is shown more in boys.

They believe that the amygdala is important in emotions; and so differences in emotionality between the genders may come from differences in the amygdala.

They also point out that empathy-related neurocircuitry is more active in females.

However, it isn’t generally emphasised that male + female brains differ with regard to amygdala functioning.

Question 55

What Evidence supports the Amygdala as an explanation of criminal/anti-social behaviour?

Answer 55

Monkey Studies
Raine et al

Neuroimaging

Question 56

How do monkey studies support the amygdala as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 56

If the amygdala is electrically stimulated in monkeys, they become aggressive.

If the amygdala is removed/ablated in monkeys, they have a huge reduction in fear + aggression, and become much friendlier towards other monkeys.

Question 57

How does Raine et al support the amygdala as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 57

Raine et al found that there were differences in the amygdala and hippocampus between those pleading NGRI and their controls.

Abnormal functioning in those areas could explain why the experimental group had all committed murder.

Question 58

How does neuroimaging support the amygdala as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 58

Neuroimaging is a research method that is standardised; and can show reliable findings as more than one person can analyse the scanned pictures.

Neuroimaging is also a physical presence that can be analysed, making it credible.

Question 59

What Evidence challenges the Amygdala as an explanation of criminal/anti-social behaviour?

Answer 59

Narabayashi

Evaluation of Raine

Question 60

How does Narabayashi et al challenge the amygdala as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 60

Narabayashi et al conducted psychosurgery on human patients with aggressive behaviour.

They severed the amygdala from the limbic system, and found a mood-stabilising effect in the majority of patients over time.

Question 61

Why is Raine et al weak evidence to support the amygdala as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 61

Raine et al’s study took place in an unnatural environment, where participants did a task which did not represent natural behaviour.

Raine et al only focused on murderers, and not on any other criminal behaviour

Raine et al’s participant groups consisted of 39 males, and only 2 females

Question 62

Why is using the amygdala as an explanation of criminal/ anti-social behaviour Reductionist?

Answer 62

Other ways of explaining crime/ASB are social theories (e.g. Social Learning Theory)

The amygdala as an explanation underplay the interconnection between biological and social factors, making it reductionist.

They also don’t take other individual differences into account.

Question 63

What chromosomes do humans have?

Answer 63

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, giving a total of 46.
Pairs 1 to 22 are identical or nearly identical.

The 23rd pair consists of the sex chromosomes:
XX = female XY = male

Question 64

What is XYY syndrome?

Answer 64

A genetic condition that occurs when a male has an extra male (Y) chromosome within the 23rd pair.

Therefore, they have a total of 47 chromosomes.
This occurs in 1 in 1000 births, and occurs randomly at the time of conception.

Question 65

What are the features of XYY syndrome?

Answer 65

Most boys with XYY will have a normal development, although some may grow faster and taller than usual.

XYY syndrome has previously thought to make men overly aggressive and lack empathy, leading it to be known as a ‘super male’ syndrome.

Some studies have shown they have a slightly lower level of intelligence, although still within the normal range, and some may have behaviour problems and be easily distracted.

They may have poor writing skills, social and emotional difficulties, and some issues over control over impulsivity which could directly link with criminality/ASB

Question 66

What are the gender differences and gender issues regarding XYY syndrome?

Answer 66

XYY is an explanation from criminal/ ASB that can only focus on males.

Gender is an issue in XYY because of how such boys/men are seen in a society, rather than it being an issue between boys and girls.

Question 67

What are the evaluation points the Support XYY Syndrome?

Answer 67

Jacobs et al
Application
Frustration

Question 68

What research supports XYY syndrome?

Answer 68

Jacobs et al: For every 1000 in the prison population, 15 had XYY syndrome

Question 69

What is the Application to XYY Syndrome?

Answer 69

It is important to know about XYY syndrome, as if found early, issues around physical, behavioural and emotional development can be addressed early.

Question 70

How can XYY syndrome link to aggression, via Frustration?

Answer 70

Males with XYY syndrome have slightly lower intelligence, are more likely to have severe acne + minor birth effects.

This could lead those with the syndrome being frustrated, which leads to them committing anti social behaviours.

Question 71

What evaluation points Challenge XYY Syndrome?

Answer 71

Inaccuracies
Reductionist
Generalisability

Question 72

How is XYY syndrome not Generalisable?

Answer 72

Generalisability: XYY fails to account for criminal behaviour among women.

Question 73

How can XYY Syndrome have problems with Inaccuracies in Diagnosis?

Answer 73

Accuracy: Around 75% of cases are not diagnosed/detected.
Some studies looking into XYY syndrome identified those with it incorrectly.

Visual cues can only be used to determine XYY. This is a subjective way of diagnosis.

Question 74

How is XYY Syndrome Reductionist?

Answer 74

XYY underplays the interconnection between nature and nurture.

Even in studies that find XYY does relate to crime, there could be labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy as the cause of that link

Genetically, someone may have XYY syndrome but any effect from the genetic difference can be down to environmental influence

The problem is in splitting nature and nurture when looking for a cause

Question 75

How does Eysenck’s theory integrate both biological and social factors?

Answer 75

Eysenck believes that personality is determined by a person’s biology, which in turn is determined by their genes. It is believed that certain personality traits lend themselves more toward anti-social behaviour.

Question 76

What are the 3 components of a PEN personality?

Answer 76

Psychoticism
Extroversion
Neuroticism

Question 77

What do psychotic people have, and what features do they have?

Answer 77

High testosterone, and low MAO levels.

Individuals lack empathy, and are aggressive, impersonal + cold. They can also be egocentric.

Question 78

What do extroverted people have, and what features do they have?

Answer 78

Low cortical arousal via the ARAS/ they have an underactive ARAS. Due to lower arousal, extroverts require more external stimulation.

Individuals are outgoing, sociable and active. They want excitement and may become easily bored.

Question 79

What do neurotic people have, and what features do they have?

Answer 79

High activation and low threshold levels in the limbic system.

Individuals have emotional instability, with anxiety, fear, depression + envy.

Question 80

What is arousal theory?

Answer 80

There is cortical arousal via the ARAS. Activity in the ARAS stimulates the cerebral cortex, which in turn leads to higher cortical arousal.

Question 81

What does the ARAS stand for?

Answer 81

Ascending Reticular Activating System

Question 82

What does the limbic system consist of?

Answer 82

Amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus.

Question 83

What research supports and challenges Eysenck’s personality theory as an explanation for criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 83

Gran et al
Center + Kemp

Fonseca + Yule
Gale + Edwards

Question 84

How does Gran et al’s study support Eyesenck’s Theory of Personality?

Answer 84

48% of psychotic ex-offenders were likely to reoffend, compared to those not rated as highly psychotic.

Question 85

How does Center + Kemp’s study supports Eyesenck’s Theory of Personality?

Answer 85

They found a relationship between anti-social behaviour and psychoticism, in a sample of 11 delinquents.

Question 86

How does Fonseca + Yule’s study challenge Eyesenck’s Theory of Personality?

Answer 86

They compared delinquents to non-delinquents, and found no difference in extroversion, psychoticism or neuroticism scores as measured by the EPI.

Question 87

How does Gale + Edward’s study challenge Eyesenck’s Theory of Personality?

Answer 87

Found no difference in levels of arousal for introverts + extroverts during EEG measures.

Question 88

What is the ARAS?

Answer 88

A system that transmits messages to the limbic system, triggering the release of hormones and neurotransmitters

Question 89

How can Twin Studies show Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 89

MZ twins share all genetic information, where is DZ twins share 50% of information

If MZ twins are more alike in terms of aggressive behaviour than DZ; this suggests it is likely to be due to genes, rather than the environment

Question 90

What is a problem with using Twin studies to explain criminal behaviour?

Answer 90

A problem with twin studies is that twins are often brought up in similar ways, making it hard to say whether the concordance rates are caused by genetic or environmental factors

Question 91

How can Adoption Studies show Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 91

Adoption studies help to determine if a change in the environment results in similar behaviours: If this happens it would suggest the behaviour showing is due to genetics

Question 92

What did Hutchings + Mednick find about adoption studies and criminal behaviour?

Answer 92

They studied male adoptees, and discovered that 85.7% of the male with criminal/minor offences had a biological father with a criminal record

They also found that 31.1% of young male adoptees without a criminal record had a biological father with a criminal record

The family concentration of ASB could be explained by genetic influence. It can also be explained by non-genetic, social transmissions of ASB within families (the nurture debate

Question 93

What is the role of Serotonin, and how does it link to Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 93

Serotonin is considered to be the body’s natural ‘happy chemical’. It helps to relay messages from one part of the brain to another, and can help to regulate mood

Lower levels of serotonin can be linked with increased aggression. It also plays a role in inhibiting impulses, other than aggressive ones.

Therefore it’s believed that serotonin can inhibit a impulsive response to stimuli; so low levels of serotonin may result in an overreaction in emotional stimulation, which may include aggression

Question 94

What is the role of Dopamine and how does it link to Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 94

Dopamine plays a key role in learning, and in the brains reward system. It’s produced in response to rewarding stimuli such as food, sex and certain drugs

Lavine (1997) found that an increase in dopamine levels through the use of amphetamines was associated with an increase in aggressive behaviour; suggesting the higher levels of dopamine correlate with higher levels of aggression

Dopamine has also been shown to serve as a positive reinforcement for aggression; where being aggressive generate increased dopamine in the brain, this activating the brains reward system

Question 95

What are evaluation points around using Neurotransmitters (Serotonin + Dopamine) to explain Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 95

Evidence of Link
Cleare + Bond
Couppis + Kennedy

Question 96

What was found about the link between Neurotransmitters and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 96

Evidence of the role of neurotransmitters in aggression comes from correlation studies that suggest the link between neurotransmitters and aggression

Question 97

How does Cleare + Bond support the link between Neurotransmitters and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 97

They found that even in males with no history of psychiatric problems, low serotonin levels correlate with levels of aggression and hostility

Question 98

How does Couppis + Kennedy support the link between Neurotransmitters and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 98

They found that dopamine levels in mice would increase and act as a reward during an aggressive act.

This could mean that the increased levels of dopamine are not a cause of aggression, but a consequence of it

Question 99

How can Testosterone show Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 99

Testosterone is an androgen; women produce some testosterone but in much lower quantities. Elevated levels of testosterone are associated with higher levels of aggression.

The age in which men are most likely to be involved in violence between the ages of 15 and 25. It may be more than coincidental that this is also the time when men have the highest levels of testosterone

Question 100

What research evidence supports a link between Testosterone and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 100

Dabbs et al
Ellis
Soler et al

Question 101

How does Dabbs et al support the link between Testosterone and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 101

They took saliva samples of adult male prisoners to test levels of testosterone.

They found that those of higher levels of testosterone had a history of violent crime, whereas those with lower levels had committed only non-violent crimes.

They also found that individuals with higher testosterone levels were more likely to be involved in direct confrontations with others in prison, and generally broke more rules

Question 102

How does Ellis support the link between Testosterone and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 102

In 11 studies examining the relationship between blood + saliva testosterone levels and involvement in criminal activity, all 11 showed a positive but modest correlation in testosterone levels and involvement in testosterone related offences

Question 103

How does Soler et al support the link between Testosterone and Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 103

A study into domestic violence found that male offenders had high levels of saliva testosterone than males with no domestic violence history

Question 104

What is an issue with using Testosterone to explain Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 104

Elevated levels of testosterone may be as such a result of violence as they are a contributor.

Thus the cause + effect relationship cannot be fully established

Question 105

What is Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 105

A specific way of asking to suspect/witness questions about an incident

Designed to maximise the accuracy of the information obtained

If inaccurate information is taken, this could lead to a wrongful conviction

Question 106

Cognitive interviewing is based on Two Principal Concepts of cognitive psychology. What are they?

Answer 106

1. Associations with the Event
   Memory of an event is based on a number of associations. Cues can be used to trigger further memories.
2. Original Area of the Event
   Retrieval from memory will be more affective if they reinstate the context of the original surroundings

Question 107

What are the four main techniques used in cognitive interviewing?

(Guided by Gieselman et al, 1985)

Answer 107

1. Reinstate the context at the time of the Event
2. Report Everything
3. Change the Order in which the event is called
4. Change Perspective

Question 108

How does reinstating the context at the time of the event help recall more information in a cognitive interview?

Answer 108

Supports cue- dependent recall

It encourages witnesses to recall specific issues (e.g. smells, time of day, weather, how they felt, etc)

Helps put the person back in time to the incident, and may improve recall accuracy

Question 109

How does Reporting Everything help recall more information in a cognitive interview?

Answer 109

Allows the witness to fully recall a narrative of the situation
Games and initial account, without interruption

There is then scope for the interviewer to ask further questions
It clarifies significant moments in turn for more detail

Question 110

What can be a problem when Reporting Everything in the cognitive interview?

Answer 110

Witnesses may exclude details they feel to be unimportant, but may actually be a cue for key information

Question 111

How does Changing the Order in which the Event is Called help recall more information in a cognitive interview?

Answer 111

We tend to recall stories in the correct order, leading us to reconstruct stories and draw on existing schemas

Recalling events in reverse order can help a person avoid skipping over information that may have been taken for granted

Question 112

How does Changing Perspective help recall more information in a cognitive interview?

Answer 112

Trying to adopt the viewpoint of someone else can encourage recall of events that may otherwise be omitted

This can increase the accuracy of recall

Question 113

What research evidence supports Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 113

Holliday (2003)

Fisher et al

Godden + Baddeley

Question 114

What research evidence challenges Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 114

Gieselman et al felt that although the cognitive interview encouraged participants to remember more of what happened in a crime event than a standard interview; the information record was not more accurate than the standard review

Question 115

What are the Disadvantages of Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 115

Other factors like individual differences may have affected how much information was recalled – if a witness has a brain injury or has witnessed a crime previously, their ability to recall would be different

Cognitive interviewing requires specialist training in order to be used effectively. This training and expertise can be costly to police divisions

Using this approach is not always helpful at the scene of the crime, when the importance at that time is placed on catching the perpetrator. Also the crime scene can be chaotic and busy which isn’t always helpful

Question 116

What Ethical Interview Techniques must be put into consideration when looking at Cognitive Interviews?

Answer 116

To ensure the interview process remains ethical it is important that interviewers are mindful of the need to remain impartial and open-minded to the information and witness may present. This will help to avoid the interview asking leading questions to support their own assumptions about the event

Modern policing has moved away from interrogation techniques, which are more aggressive approach using psychological manipulation, to more thorough supportive interview process. They aim to get the truth rather than to see confessions

The use of deception in interviews, where police may have provided intentionally ambiguous information or made up . Promises in order to seek confessions, are not practices followed within the British legal systems

Any information within interviews needs to be given freely and willingly in order to be considered valid (with the witness or suspects’ consent). Consent is obviously vital when interviewing younger children

Question 117

What Issues + Debates are looked at with Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 117

Psychology as a Science: Lab-based research within eyewitness testimonies is commonly used. The lab setting is very controlled to minimise extraneous variables.

Psychology over Time: Cognitive interviews are much more accurate than the standard police interview. Also, a revised cognitive interview, called the enhanced cognitive interview, now includes additional memory enhancing interview techniques and questions that validate the knowledge elicited by the witness. Although the overall benefits of the enhanced public interviews are yet to be established and reliable research, it does place greater demand on the interview than the original cognitive or standard police interview

Question 118

How does Holliday (2003) support Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 118

Holliday has shown cognitive interviewing to be more useful than a standard interview that does not use the four components when interviewing children as young as five years old

Question 119

How does Fisher et al support Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 119

They found that after training, detectives gained as much as 47% more useful information from witnesses to real crimes, compare to when they have been using standard interview techniques

Question 120

How does Godden + Baddeley support Cognitive Interviewing?

Answer 120

This study shows context cues are useful in aiding recall: the main number of words remembered for conditions with the same environment for learning and recall (13 point 5/36 for dry/dry, and 11.4 for wet/wet) were much higher than those with dissimilar locations

Question 121

What is the aim of an Offence Analysis?

Answer 121

To put together a relevant and effective treatment plan.

It is about understanding the offender, after they have been sentenced in order to formulate an understanding of them

Question 122

What does an offence analysis refer to?

Answer 122

Offence analysis refers to the analysis of a crime, including assessment of the offender.

Before carrying out a psychological formulation/case formulation, an offence analysis needs to be carried out first

Question 123

What do forensic psychologists do during an offence analysis?

Answer 123

Forensics psychologists were not present during the crime; they cannot observe the criminal behaviour

Therefore, they find a similar offence and draw conclusions from that about a different offender. They can also look for behaviour and issues that go along with the offence (contingencies); and draw conclusions from everything observed.

The idea is to look at the criminogenic state and attitudes.

Question 124

What are contingencies?

Answer 124

Future events or circumstances which are possible, but can’t be predicted with certainty.

Question 125

What is meant by a criminogenic state?

Answer 125

Anything that is likely to cause criminal behaviour

Question 126

What is involved in an offence analysis?

Answer 126

Offence cycles
Addiction to crime
Psychological similarity
Schema therapy

Question 127

What do Offence Cycles assume?

Answer 127

If any contingencies around the time of the offence are repeated, this could likely lead to the offence happening again.

Once an offender has committed an offence, they can do it again in the same way.

Therefore, treatment will focus on strategies to avoid the contingencies.
(e.g. Setting up a lifestyle where needs are met, and so they don’t have a need to offend)

Question 128

What does Addiction to Crime explain?

Answer 128

If some offenders don’t offend for a while, they get withdrawal symptoms and the desire to offend.

The person should be reminded of the bad consequences of offending.

Question 129

What does psychological similarity discuss (offence analysis)?

Answer 129

One means of assessment is to look at patterns in reasons for offending

Behaviour can be said to be the same because they have the same function, or come from the same psychological processes as behaviours at the time of an offence.

Question 130

What does Schema Therapy focus on?

Answer 130

A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret information. Schemas influence how people see the world, which are built from experiences with the world.

Young et al discusses patterns of behaviour that are repeated, and they relate such behaviour to certain schemas or core beliefs.

Repisodes: Episodes in someone’s life that would repeat themselves- such as maladaptive responses to relationships, or to difficult life events.

There are core ways of thinking that shape someone’s behaviour, and such constructs can guide offending behaviour.

Question 131

When is an Offence Analysis used?

Answer 131

Before treating/punishing offenders, an assessment needs to be carried out which can take The form of an offence analysis.

Then a psychological formulation/case formulation takes place, offenders can then be treated based on this

Question 132

What is a Psychological Formulation?

Answer 132

A way of making sense of a person’s difficulties; by looking at their relationships, biological and social circumstances, life events, ‘and how they have interpreted the events that have happened to them’.

Question 133

Why would psychologists use a psychological formulation?

Answer 133

Psychologists may undertake a psychological formulation to assess what influences offenders’ behaviour, and to ensure the chance of re-offending is minimal.

Question 134

What do psychological formulations do (what do they make sense of)?

Answer 134

They make sense of a person’s difficulties; through looking at their relationships, biological and social circumstances, life events and how they personally interpreted the event.

They try to account for how the problems developed, and how they’re maintained. They also try to integrate lots of information from offence analyses and assessments into some key features

Question 135

What does an exemplar psychological formulation model look like?

Answer 135

Early Experiences: What happened to them growing up

Core Beliefs: Thoughts that are important to the person

Triggers: Things that influenced the behaviour

Situation: Where the certain behaviour took place

Thoughts / Behaviour / Physical Symptoms / Feelings: emotions throughout the situation

Question 136

What did Eels (2007a) say in regards to pychological formulations?

Answer 136

A psychological formulation is a hypothesis about someone’s psychological, interpersonal and behavioural problems considering their causes.

Theories used in a formulation include: behavioural, cognitive and pychodynamic

Question 137

How are the advantages of using psychological formulations to understand the offender?

Answer 137

They help simplify a lot of complex explanations of the offender’s behaviour.
Helps professional make decisions about the individual’s future
Useful way of explaining the offender themselves what led them to committing the offender.

Case Formulations tend to be brief- there are specific features in formulations (e.g. cognitive formulations might include ideas about underlying schemas)

Question 138

How are the disadvantages of using psychological formulations to understand the offender?

Answer 138

Although the BPS has issued some guidance, psych formulations don’t follow a specific structure, meaning that they’re not standardised.

The gathering of information is subjective, and psychologists may focus on different aspects. This makes them unreliable

Most formulations are seen as tentative (not certain or fixed; mouldable), and ready to be revised in light of new information. For example, if an offender doesn’t respond to treatment and new information is found, this leads to new formulations

Question 139

Why are some offenders given anger management?

Answer 139

Some offenders are put on anger management a part of their treatment due to the nature of the offense, or because of personal characteristics.

Anger is a natural healthy response- it’s bad when rage takes a person over and puts strain on them.

Question 140

What does CBT focus on?

Answer 140

There is more focus on what triggers the outburst of anger or aggression, and how that trigger can be changed.

Such anger is thought of more as inappropriate thinking patterns and reactions, rather than as ‘outbursts’.

There is focus on thinking patterns (cognitive part) and the aggressive reaction (behavioural part)

Question 141

What can an exemplar group CBT meeting look like?

Answer 141

A programme could take form of a twice-weekly group meeting.

First, there is focus on helping the group work together.

Group skills are used, such as having a check in; where each person describes their day and their progress.

Gradually, these can turn to discussions of what makes the person angry, and such sessions would end in something positive they dislike.

The sessions then introduce the idea of changing the thoughts that relate to an angry response, and ending with something positive.

Question 142

What does CALM stand for?

Answer 142

Controlling Anger and Learning to Manage it

Question 143

What is CALM?

Answer 143

CALM teaches participants, focusing on men, to monitor and understand their emotions in order to prevent problematic behaviour.

Participants learn the skills necessary to reduce the frequency, intensity and duration of anger, to reduce the likelihood of aggression.

Question 144

What are CALM sessions like?

Answer 144

The CALM sessions are practical, highly structured, sequential, and designed for delivery to groups of adolescent + adult males at risk of inappropriate violent behaviour; and in many cases, criminal recidivism.

Personal assignments, modelling, role-play, teamwork and self/peer evaluation are used to promote long term changes of inappropriate thought patterns.

Question 145

What are the 3 steps involved in anger management?

Answer 145

1. Cognitive Preparation: Offenders identify situation when an aggressive outburst is likely to occur. From there, thought patterns are challenged.
2. Skill Acquisition: New coping skills are learned to help deal with anger-provoking situations (e.g. relaxation, or social skills like assertiveness)
3. Application Practice: Offenders roleplay a variety of scenarios to practice new skills to control anger. They’re conducted in controlled experiments, so offenders feel safe, and untrained individuals are not exposed to risk of harm.

Question 146

What was Blacker et al’s study?

Answer 146

They explored a drama-based programme named ‘Insult to Injury’. They helped look at what triggered offenders’ anger. The approach provided a safe and secure environment. Issues like masculinity, victim awareness and pride + shame were explored
One group of 62 adult UK males took part in the 9 day course.
Significant anger reductions were found.

Question 147

What are the strengths of using CBT/CALM as a treatment for criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 147

CBT has shown to be effective, in helping to treat many emotional difficulties.

Wilson, Bouffard and MacKenzie: In a meta analysis of 20 group-oriented CBT research studies, CBT was found to reduce recidivism up to 30% more than control groups.

However, some meta-anaylsis studies show a greater effect than others; and so it’s not certain what aspect of the therapy works on what type of offender.

Question 148

What are the weaknesses of using CBT/CALM as a treatment for criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 148

Anger management is only effective in those offenders who have problems with anger control. It’s not effective for all crimes.

It’s only effective for those motivated to change their behaviour, and are committed to the programmed.

CBT isn’t a form of counseling, and therefore doesn’t focus on overcoming emotional reactions. They also only focus on the ‘here and now’, although it does acknowledge past thoughts + experiences.

Question 149

What does dopamine do, and how does it lead to aggression?

Answer 149

Dopamine affects the brain’s rewards system.
High dopamine level increase aggression. High aggression leads to higher rewards.

Amphetamines increase dopamine levels, and thus amphetamines correspond with higher aggression.

Question 150

How can you treat an increase in dopamine?

Answer 150

Dopamine antagonists (e.g. risperidone)

They block receptors on which dopamine acts. This reduces dopamine activity, reducing aggression.

Question 151

What was Le Blanc’s study?

Answer 151

AIM: To investigate the effect of risperidone among adolescents

PROCEDURE: 169 adolescent boys with a below average IQ. There was a randomised control trial; where they got either risperidone, or a placebo

RESULTS: After 6 weeks, those who took risperidone had a 56% improvement in symptoms; whereas the placebo had a 21% improvement.

CONCLUSION: Risperidone is effective in reducing symptoms of aggression.

Question 152

What does testosterone do, and how does it lead to aggression?

Answer 152

There are greater levels of testosterone in men. Testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissue, and is required to maintain muscle strength and bone density.

Elevated testosterone has been documented among individuals with a history of aggression.

Question 153

How can you treat an increase in testosterone?

Answer 153

Female hormone MPA

Decreases the function of testosterone, breaks down and eliminates testosterone, and inhibits the production of ‘Luteinising Hormone’ through the pituitary gland.

(Significant side effects include breast enlargement, osteoporosis and depression)

Question 154

What research evidence supports using testosterone treatments to treat criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 154

Research studies regarding biological treatment use placebos, which reduce demand characteristics.

Loosen et al: the administration of MPA resulted in marked reduction in outwardly directed anger among all 8 participants with their study. (although, all ppts were non-aggressive men)

Question 155

What are the disadvantages of using hormone treatments to treat criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 155

Much guidance for hormone treatment states that medication alone should not be the treatment plan.

It can take up to 4 weeks for SSRIs to have a noticeable effect on the individual. People may not consistently take it if they don’t see any effect.

There can be physical side effects: This means the treatment may not be suitable for everyone if they have certain medical conditions, or because the side effects are too severe.

They may become too over-reliant on antidepressants, and so will need higher and higher doses to get the same effect. This makes them almost ‘obsessed’ with the drug.

Question 156

What is Serotonin, and what about it can be used to Reduce Aggression/ Criminal Behaviour?

Answer 156

Serotonin is responsible for maintaining mood balance

Low levels of serotonin can link to aggression

Levels can be increased by SSRIs, which are a form of antidepressants.

Serotonin is usually reabsorbed by nerve cells after carrying a message in the brain (aka ‘reuptake’). SSRIs inhibit this reuptake.

This means more serotonin is available to pass further messages between the neurons

Question 157

Who are Eyewitnesses, and what can influence their EWT?

Answer 157

Eyewitnesses are those who see an event such as a crime occurring

The police usually interview them and document everything the person saw

They are likely to be required to go to court, so they can tell the judge and jury what they saw during the event

Our memories aren’t as accurate as what we want/expect, and can be affected by a number of different factors, all of which influences how reliable we are in court

Question 158

What changes recall of an Eyewitness?

Answer 158

The experiences of the witness in the time period from the event and the recall may have an effect on what they think they say during the offense

Other information could confabulate the info they’ve already encoded

Different sources (e.g. media coverage) may augment or degrade a person’s witness report

We tend to recall the main points only, or underlie meaning in a way that makes most sense to the individual.

We don’t recall info in the exact same way we encode it

Info may be particularly affected if the event was unusual, or outside normal experience.

Question 159

What is the Misinformation Effect?

Answer 159

Most of what we know about EWT comes from Loftus’ research.

Exposure to misleading post information decreases the accuracy of EWT.

For participants receiving inaccurate information, the accuracy often fell below chance levels of performance- this pattern of results is the misinformation effect.

Question 160

What did Loftus find about false childhood memories?

Answer 160

Loftus used a lab experiment to see if people accept false childhood memories, and found they did.

29% recalled a childhood story of being lost, crying, an elderly woman consoling him, and going back to their family.

Question 161

What did Areh (2010) find in terms of individual differences and post event information?

Answer 161

Females were more reliable eyewitnesses, and were more accurate when describing people (in particular, victims)

It’’s generally thought that there are small gender differences, and they relate to specific cognitive abilities between the 2 sexes.

Question 162

What did Zargoaza find, and does this support or challenge post event information?

Answer 162

Participants watched a slide sequence depicting a workman stealing some items from an office.

Participants then read a description of the target event containing either neutral information, or misleading information about objects present in the slides. They were also given either a standard recognition test, or a cue recalled test.

Ppts were asked closed questions in condition 1, and open questions in condition 2.

!U: Figure out what they actually found!

(The questions, however, were phrased in a way that the misleading answer was not a logical response. Therefore, the findings are weak.)

Question 163

How does Poole + Lindsay’s study support post event information?

Answer 163

Poole + Lindsay investigated the accuracy of recall on 5-7 year olds, and found that after a 3 month delay, children were found to be influenced by leading questions

(Issues with generalisability)

Question 164

What are the benefits and problems with lab experiments being used to research post event information?

Answer 164

Lab experiements have the advantage of being highly controlled settings, to allow a strong case and effect relationship to occur.

Lab experiments are unlikely to create the same emotional reactions in watching a film of a crime scene, than if they were actually there. They also may reduce normal characteristics of a crime, as ppts know it isn’t real

Question 165

How can leading questions affect recall?

Answer 165

Leading questions come from a number of sources, including interviews.

They may be used unintentionally (gaining information, or intentionally (to confuse witnesses, and get their client a non-guilty verdict)

Question 166

How does Loftus + Palmer’s study support Leading Questions?

Answer 166

(Classical Study)

They concluded that leading questions have an influence on people’s memory.

Question 167

How does Yuille + Cutshall (1986) challenge Leading Questions?

Answer 167

The research was based on a real life gunshot robbery: witness interviews were compared to police records of the other testimony.

They found that the witnesses had detailed memories of the event, and won’t misled by leading questions

(However, they used a small participant group, questioning validity.)

Question 168

What does weapon focus suggest?

Answer 168

When a weapon is in a scene, a witness tends to grow attention onto the weapon, and so other information is recalled less.

Question 169

What did Steblay do, and find about Weapon Focus?

Answer 169

Steblay carried out a meta-analysis on 19 studies, looking at weapon focus and its effect on eyewitness memory.

He found a significant difference between the weapon/non-weapon conditions.
Sometimes it caused them to remember more, and sometimes it made them forget.

The study used both students and non-students.

Question 170

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

Answer 170

Applicable to any crime situation

The high level of stress + arousal may affect how much information a witness encodes.

As a weapon causes an optimum level of arousal, the witness can’t recall other details as well as the weapon.

Question 171

How does weapon focus divert attention?

Answer 171

Because a weapon is unusual in many cultures, it is focused on more closely, at the expense of peripheral information.

Question 172

What are threat, novelty and timing effects on weapon focus?

Answer 172

Research evidence showed that weapon focus may work because attentional cues are narrowed to the weapon; perhaps because arousal increases.

Weapon focus may work because weapons are novel objects, which take more attention than appropriate items. Research evidence found that a novel and a threatening object lead to more misidentification.

Question 173

What did Loftus et al (1987) find, and how does this support weapon focus as an effect on EWT?

Answer 173

Loftus et al suggested that weapon focus occurs because the presence of a weapon focuses attention away from the less dramatic visual images, such as the image of the perpetrator

In a lab experiment showing ppts a series of slides of a customer in a restaurant; when the customer was holding a gun, this lead to ppts being less likely to identify the culprit.

When the customer was holding a chequebook, they were more likely to identify the culprit.

Question 174

What did Pickel (1998) find, and how does this support or challenge weapon focus as an effect on EWT?

Answer 174

Lab experiment, showing a video consisting of the scene from a hair salon.

A man walked to a receptionist holding scissors/ a handgun/ raw chicken / a wallet/ nothing. She then handed him money.

Ppts then completed a 10 minute filler exercise before completing the questionnaire asking them to recall details

The handgun and raw chicken resulted in the poorest recall; suggesting that it is threat and unusualness that has an effect on recall.

Question 175

What did Wagstaff et al find, and how does this challenge weapon focus as an effect on EWT?

Answer 175

They investigated real life events.

They coded police interviews taken from witnesses/victims of robberies assaults and rapes investigated by two separate police forces in Britain. They then compared them to the police description of the suspect

There was no evidence of any effect of weapon presence on feature accuracy

Question 176

What did Fawcett et al find, and how does this support or challenge weapon focus as an effect on EWT?

Answer 176

They conducted a meta-analysis on what causes our memories to be influenced by weapon presence.

They concluded that weapon focus negatively affects feature/identification accuracy in both controlled and real life situations

The factors complicating weapon focus within real world research include how long the witness was exposed to the weapon. (This is easily controlled in lab settings)

Question 177

What individual differences may affect weapon focus?

Answer 177

People’s cognition/memory are different

Women recall memory better than men

People may have brain injury

People may have had traumatic experiences with certain weapons

Question 178

What is the description for how anxiety and stress may affect EWT?

Answer 178

Emotion can cause the individual to struggle to process what they are seeing, and fail to encode information from the crime scene

Stress levels go extremely high when people observe criminal activity which can heavily influence the chance of EWT recalling the information.

Question 179

What did Clifford and Scott find, and how does that support anxiety and stress as something that affects EWT?

Answer 179

They found that people who saw a film of a violent attack remembered fewer of the 40 items of information about the event, than a control group who saw a less stressful version.

As witnessing a real life crime is probably more stressful than taking part in an experiment, memory accuracy may well be even more affected in real life.

Question 180

What did Yuille and Cutshall find, and how does that challenge anxiety and stress as something that affects EWT?

Answer 180

They showed that witnesses of a real life incident where a thief stole guns + money, was shot 6 times and died, had remarkably accurate memories of the event.

They illustrated: There are cases of real life events where memory and recall is accurate. Misleading questions need not have the same effect as has been found in lab studies.

Question 181

What is a jury?

Answer 181

For all cases in the Crown Court (which gives more serious sentences for those who are guilty), a jury (consisting of 12 adults) is selected to assist a judge in the case.

They have to decide, as a group, whether the defendant is guilty or not

The judge relies entirely on the jury, making them extremely important.

Question 182

How can Court Trial Processes affect Jury Decision Making?

Answer 182

The trial process is vulnerable at many stages, as the jury members are suspectible to influence throughout the process, even before being selected as a jury member, and after all the evidence has been presented.

Question 183

What things Before the Trial may affect jury decision making?

Answer 183

Competence and Instructions

Pre-Trial Publicity

Question 184

What is Pre-Trial Publicity, and how can it affect jury decision making?

Answer 184

Publicity surrounding the offence, defendant or other information can influence the schemas of the jury. A criminal case is often documented in the media for a significant time, before it goes to trial.

The media can create a perception about the defendant and other parties, even before official information is given. This can change schemas which are difficult to change back.

Question 185

How can Competence and Instructions affect jury decision making?

Answer 185

Jurors are expected to listen to often technical information which may be far outside of their own knowledge base

Question 186

What Research Evidence shows Competence + Instructions can influence Jury Decision Making?

Answer 186

Forster Lee et al
Lovett + Kovera
Severance + Loftus

Question 187

How does Forster Lee et al show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 187

Giving instructions prior to the presentation of technical information increased their ability to focus on relevant information to the trial rather than afterwards. This is because they could filter out what was irrelevant.

Question 188

How does Lovett + Kovera show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 188

The juries have difficulty evaluating what scientific evidence is in accuracies, due to difficulties in understanding the meaning of the evidence

Question 189

How does Severance + Loftus show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 189

Having key terms explained improved understanding of legal concepts; but not all demonstrated understanding. There is understanding for terms the jury may be familiar with, but does little to improve understanding of more legal, unfamiliar terms

Question 190

What is Factual Publicity?

Answer 190

Factual Publicity is likely to include incriminating information about the defendant or the case, such as what happened during the crime.

Question 191

What is Emotional Publicity?

Answer 191

It is likely to present information that could arouse negative emotions.( E.g. info about the defendant or victims past)- This is seen to have the longer lasting influence on jury members.

Question 192

What Research Evidence shows Pre-Trial Publicity can influence Jury Decision Making?

Answer 192

Steblay

Ogloff + Vidmar

Question 193

How does Steblay show that Pre-Trial Publicity can influence jury decision making?

Answer 193

Steblay undertook a meta-analysis of 44 empirical tests; found that jurors exposed to negative pre-trial publicity were significantly more likely to judge the defendant guilty

Question 194

How does Ogloff + Vidmar show that Pre-Trial Publicity can influence jury decision making?

Answer 194

They looked at a real child sex abuse case- they found that potential jurors would express negative bias in the presence of negative pre-trial publicity, and were unaware that they have the bias.

Question 195

What are the advantages of the research that has looked into how Pre-Trial Publicity can influence jury decision making?

Answer 195

Studies that use an experimental methods involve careful controls

Scientific procedures are carried out

Enough research has been done into this to carry out meta-analyses

Question 196

What are the disadvantages of the research that has looked into how Pre-Trial Publicity can influence jury decision making?

Answer 196

They may lack ecological validity

Many studies use students- not generalisable

Question 197

What things During the Trial may affect jury decision making?

Answer 197

Defendant Characteristics
Expert Witness Testimony
Story Models
Witness Characteristics

Question 198

How does Expert Witness Testimony show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 198

Expert witness testimony is often used to give scientific credibility to evidence and help clarify complex issues.

Warning the jury about the reliability of certain witness evidence does reduce trust of the evidence; but doesn’t necessarily discriminate between good and bad evidence

Question 199

What shows that Expert Witness Testimonies can influence Jury Decision Making?

Answer 199

Research evidence showed jurors tend to disregard the warnings about EWT, and still follow it

Cutler et al: Jurors were more likely to give guilty verdicts when the eye witness used easier language.

Question 200

How do Story Models show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 200

When faced with complex information, jurors are likely to pick out key information/facts, and create a story out of it to make sense of the information given to them

Question 201

What Research Evidence shows Story Models can influence Jury Decision Making?

Answer 201

Pennington + Hastie: When an account of an offence was easy to understand, 78% of the ppts (who were jurors) gave a guilty verdict. When it wasn’t, 31% gave a guilty verdict.

This suggests that legal representatives should consider how they structure their legal arguments, and that this can be used as a means of potentially influencing the outcome of the trial

Question 202

How do Witness Characteristics show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 202

Social psychology has identified that an authoritarian personality is most likely to be followed by others, and a confident authoritarian witness may influence the jury.

Race, accent and attractiveness of the witness may also influence the jurors, based on the schemas and stereotypes; as has been evidenced for defendants

Question 203

What things Post-Trial may affect jury decision making?

Answer 203

Conformity
Understanding of the Trial (Jury characteristics)
Minority Influence
Social Loafing
Foreperson Influence

Question 204

How can Conformity show Competence + Instructions can influence jury decision making?

Answer 204

When an individual gives their views under pressure. They may not give their actual thoughts on the case.

There are two types of conformity: normative + informational

Question 205

What is Normative Conformity?

Answer 205

The juror conforms to avoid rejection from the group or to gain rewards from, even though they may not personally agree

Question 206

What is Informational Conformity?

Answer 206

The individual conforms to the group norms because they do not know what to do and looks to the group for guidance. It may be that the individual does not understand the legal technicalities of the case.

Question 207

What Research Evidence shows Conformity can influence Jury Decision Making?

Answer 207

Asch (1951) found that the most influential groups size to gain conformity was 7:1.

He also showed that difficult tasks and the higher status of some group members also influenced others to conform

Question 208

What is an Exemplar Trial where jurors didn’t fully understand the trial?

Answer 208

The understanding of the jury in the Vicky Pryce trial in February 2013 was questionable.

She was accused of falsely admitting she was driving the car when a husband at the time, Chris Huhne (a member of parliament), was caught speeding.

The jury had listened to all the information and were at the ‘deliberation stage’ (this happens towards the end of a trial). They asked some basic questions that raised significant concerns to the judge about their understanding of the role, and of the information given to them in court.

The defendant faced a possible prison sentence if found guilty, so it was important they knew + understood the information

The judge considered that he had no choice but to dismiss the first jury, select a new one and hold a retrial, in the hope they would understand and be able to make an informed decision

Question 209

What is meant by an Informed Decision?

Answer 209

A decision using all of the available facts and information. Once the information has been gathered, the person can evaluate it to make their decision

Question 210

What should the jury be able to do when Jury Decision Making?

Answer 210

The jury is expected to have a sufficient level of understanding of the English language, formal discussions and an ability to evaluate the information given to them.

Their abilities in this area may therefore have a significant effect on the decisions they make at the trial

Question 211

How can Minority Influence affect Jury Decision Making?

Answer 211

It does not always require a large number of individuals to influence the decision of one juror

Moscovici (1976)- suggests that one or a small minority of like-minded individuals may influence the majority.

He found this to be the case if they are consistent, committed in their opinions and arguments, seem to be acting on principle rather than out of self gain and incur some costs; as well as being not overly rigid and unreasonable in their opinions and arguments

Question 212

How can Social Loafing affect Jury Decision Making?

Answer 212

Not every individual who serve on the jury is motivated to attend. Many people are there only because they have summoned to participate. Such individuals may therefore be inclined to deliberate less

Social loafing refers to a reduction in individual effort on a collective task, in which the output is pooled with those of other group members, compared to working alone

Knowing that the final jury decision is a collective one, an individual jury member may be inclined to review the information less than they would if it was their decision alone; thereby letting of the jury members think for them and influence their decisions

Question 213

How can Foreperson Influence affect Jury Decision Making?

Answer 213

All juries will have a foreperson, who will be the individual to present the decision of the jury back to the judge. The foreperson is often perceived as a leader, and a selection of the foreperson often reflects this.

Leaders are more likely to influence others as they are considered best placed to make a decision.

If this individual has an authoritarian personality, this may further influence of the jury members.

However, evidence for the influence of the foreperson is more limited than other post-trial factors

Question 214

What defendant characteristics can influence jury decision making?

Answer 214

Race
Gender
Attractiveness
Accent

Question 215

How does the race of the defendant affect jury decision making?

Answer 215

One common finding is that white jurors in mock trials demonstrate negative bias to black, compared to white defendants.

More black defendants are found guilty than white defendants.

Question 216

What research evidence discusses how the Race of the defendant affects JDM?

Answer 216

Bradbury + Williams (2013)
Skolnick + Shaw (1997)
Abwender + Hough (2001)

Question 217

How does Bradbury + Williams show the Race of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 217

They found that black defendants are less likely to be convicted by juries with a higher proportion on black jurors; and are more likely to by white or Hispanic jurors.

Question 218

How does Skolnick + Shaw show the Race of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 218

While jurors of the same ethnicity were less likely to give a guilty verdict, white jurors were more likely to find a black defendant not guilty. The same effect was not found, vice versa.

This was speculated to be because white jurors didn’t want to be viewed as racist

Question 219

How does Abwender + Hough show the Race of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 219

Undertook mock trials, which involved white, black + Hispanics defendants; and investigated race + attractiveness.

Black participants showed more leniency to black defendants, whereas Hispanics showed the opposite, and white participants showed no bias.

This suggests that racial bias has a more complicated effect on JDM, as racial bias isn’t consistent among racial groups

Question 220

How does the attractiveness of the defendant affect jury decision making?

Answer 220

Defendants are instructed to present themselves in a smart + tidy fashion when going to court

This can help to reduce any stereotypes the jury may have against the defendant, and can influence their decision on the defendant

The Attractiveness Effect: Unattractive people are seen as more likely to commit crime than attractive people

Question 221

What research evidence discusses how the Attractiveness of the defendant affects JDM?

Answer 221

Sigall + Ostrove
Abwender + Hough
Saladin et al
Quigley et al

Question 222

How does Sigall + Ostrove show the Attractiveness of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 222

They asked 120 participants to make sentence recommendations for a defendant for either burglary or fraud. They were given a piece of card with a crime written on it, either fraud or burglary, and a photograph of a woman known as Barbara Helms. There were 6 of conditions to the research.

The participants were separated into 6 groups of 20 participants, with each group having a different experimental condition*. All participants were asked to rate Barbara’s attractiveness to ensure they agreed which photographs showed her as unattractive and attractive. They were then all asked to give her a prison sentence from between 1 and 15 years for the crime

They found that Barbara was sentenced to longer in prison in the fraud conditions and less time in prison for burglary in the attractive photo condition. A similar length of sentence was given for both crimes in the unattractive and no photograph conditions. This suggested it was the attractiveness of the photograph that influenced their decision.

This could be due to an assumption that attractive people use their looks to con people out of to an This money, whereas attractive people are not associated with burglary

*6 conditions: Attractive/Unattractive/No photo of Barbara committing burglary/fraud

(Lacks ecological validity, as the jury only makes a decision on guilt, and do not decide the length of a sentence for a defendant who has been found guilty-only the judge has the legal power to do that)

Question 223

How does Abwender + Hough show the Attractiveness of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 223

Female jurors were harsher to an unattractive defendant, than an attractive one.

Males showed the opposite

Question 224

How does Saladin et al show the Attractiveness of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 224

They showed ppts photos of 8 men, and asked the ppts to judge how capable they would be of committing armed robbery + murder.

Unattractive men were considered ore likely to have committed either crime than the unattractive men (the attractiveness effect)

Question 225

How does Quigley et al show the Attractiveness of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 225

The attractiveness effect is most evident with serious but non-fatal crimes such as burglary, and when females are being judged

However, the attractiveness effect is not present if people are considered to be using their attractiveness for material gain, such as in fraud cases

Question 226

What has Dixon + Mahoney found about Accents and Jury Decision Making?

Answer 226

John Dixon + Bernice Mahoney are British psychologists who have conducted a lot of research on accent and JDM.
They, with other colleagues, typically focused on the Birmingham accent, likely due to the geographical area where they work.

They identified a probable level of prejudice acquiring towards those with a strong Birmingham accent, compare to a non-Birmingham accent

Question 227

How does Dixon + Mahoney (1997) show the Accent of the Defendant affects Jury Decision Making?

Answer 227

In their 1997 study, participants were given a transcript and a tape recording to listen to, with different accents.

Birmingham accents were considered to be guiltier; and black defendants with a Birmingham accent were seen as guiltier than white defendants with a Birmingham accent.
All participants were white, non-Birmingham students

Question 228

What are the Problems with the Research used to find that the Characteristic of the Defendant can affect Jury Decision Making?

Answer 228

Much of the research used doesn’t fully control all variables – it isn’t possible to establish a cause and effect relationship

Experimental research doesn’t account that actual jury members are subject to a range of factors that influence their JDM: so we must be cautious when saying these characteristics definitely influence JDM

Other factors that may influence: own past experiences surrounding a similar offence; similarities and reminders of someone else they know; persuasion of other jury members during deliberation

Lab experiments aren’t ecologically valid. Real jurors may react differently in such settings. Also in lab experiments, they may put emphasis on specific variables (e.g. accent), which may not be noticed within a trial setting

A lot of research uses only students as participants

Question 229

What are some other points about how Clothing can affect JDM?

Answer 229

Looking neater and better presented means you’re less likely to be found guilty
This affects individuals as a jury member, but the effect hasn’t been found with the jury as a whole

Question 230

What are some other points about how Attractiveness can affect JDM?

Answer 230

Attractiveness doesn’t have an impact with serious crimes (e.g. domestic violence)

Question 231

What are some other points about how Race can affect JDM?

Answer 231

We may see other races as guilty as we see someone of our own race as similar to ourselves, and so we have more empathy for them

Question 232

What are some other points about how Gender can affect JDM?

Answer 232

Males are more likely to be seen as guilty than females

Guy + Edens: found that this is more so when the defendant is a “psychopath”

Women are more caring and so are less likely to commit certain crimes

Question 233

How does the Gender of the Defendant affect jury decision making?

Answer 233

Gender influences jurors decision-making greatly; and preconceived notions of the traditional role of males + females explain this.

Jurors see female defendants as more believable than male defendants. This assumption is likely to be based on males committing high crimes and having high reoffending rates.

Additionally, female defendants are often mothers with primary responsibility for their children, which makes them seem unlikely to commit a serious crime, and/or be treated leniently by the court.

Question 234

How can the Gender of the Juror affect jury decision making?

Answer 234

Females are more likely to be empathetic towards defendants, compared to male jurors. (eg female jurors are more likely to request that defendants receive psychiatric care)

Question 235

What is the Evaluation on how the Gender of the Defendant can affect jury decision making?

Answer 235

Women’s level of empathy differs when the case is concerned with rape: Women are ,ore likely to find the male accused of rape to be guilty. This may happen because women are likely to identify with other females, and so be more harsh with the Defendant accused

Studies/research looking into gender bias in the court room often use the most severe crimes, and a standard population of students. It isn’t generalisable.

Question 236

When was Bradbury + Williams’ study conducted?

Answer 236

2013

Question 237

What was the aim of Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 237

To examine whether the racial makeup of a jury affects it’s decision making.

To test these 2 hypotheses:
H1: Black defendants will be more likely to be convicted by juries composed of a higher number of white jurors.
H2: Black defendants will be more likely to be convicted by juries composed of a higher number of Hispanic jurors.

Question 238

What types of data was examined in Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 238

Data was collected from real trials from 4 states.

The cases chosen were ones with a hung jury (no initial agreement)

Only trials that included black defendants were examined.

Question 239

What was the procedure of Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 239

They examined real life cases from 4 states.

They tested whether the racial makeup of a jury affected whether or not a trial resulted in conviction.

They then undertook complex statistical analysis.

Question 240

What was the IV and DV in Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 240

IV: Racial makeup of the jury
Mostly Black / White / Hispanic

DV: Whether or not a trial resulted in conviction

Question 241

What control variables were present in Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 241

1. Quantity of Evidence
2. Case Type (violence / property / drug offence)
3. Length of the Trial
4. Length of Jury Deliberation
5. Strength of the Case
6. Presence of Written Instructions to Jury
7. Lawyer Type (Public or Private)

Question 242

How was the data in Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study analysed?

Answer 242

In order to assess whether there was a significant relationship, the researcher undertook complex statistical analysis.

This included logistic regression.

Question 243

What was the conclusion of Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 243

Diversity within the jury pool is likely to have an impact on the outcome

Black defendants are more likely to be convicted if the % of other ethnicity jurors is higher than black jurors

The selection process of jury members can therefore bias the outcome.

Question 244

What was the conclusion of Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 244

Diversity within the jury pool is likely to have an impact on the outcome

Black defendants are more likely to be convicted if the percentage of other ethnic city to raise is higher than black jurors

Question 245

What are the strengths of Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 245

Ecological Validity:
They used actual jury trials, providing more reliable data regarding JDM

Internal Validity:
There were seven control variables

Researcher Bias:
The study uses both quantitative and qualitative data- quantitative data is less subjective

Question 246

What are the weaknesses of Bradbury + Williams’ (2013) study?

Answer 246

Generalisability:
It is very rare to get data from actual trials – findings may possibly reflect an unknown uniqueness.
The cases only focused on black defendants. Therefore the findings may not be applicable to other races.

Internal Validity:
They used real trials, meaning they can’t control all variables (e.g. Individual differences, etc)

Secondary Data:
Sources may have been cherry picked

Shaw + Skolnick:
Argued that white jurors aren’t as likely to give guilty verdicts to black jurors, in order to not seem racist.

Question 247

What was the aim of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment One?

Answer 247

To investigate whether leading questions could influence the estimates of the speed of a vehicle among eyewitnesses.

To apply this to the court process

Question 248

How many participants were in Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment One?

Answer 248

45 students

Question 249

What was the Procedure of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment One?

Answer 249

45 students saw 7 short clips (5-30 secs) of a traffic accident

They gave an account of what happened, and then answered specific questions about the accident.

The critical question was “how fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?”
Each received either: hit / smashed / contacted / collided / bumped

They applied this procedure to every film.

Question 250

What were the Results of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment One?

Answer 250

Smashed - 40.8
Collided - 39.3
Bumped - 38.1
Hit - 34.0
Contacted - 31.8

When the actual speed was 20, the estimated speed was 37.3
When the actual speed was 30, the estimated speed was 36.2
When the actual speed was 40, the estimated speed was 39.7/36.1
This shows people aren’t good at estimated speed

(All in mph)

Question 251

What was the Conslusion of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment One?

Answer 251

The form of question can affect the answer

This is due to 2 reasons:

• People can’t judge speeds between 30 and 40 mph and so use the wording to help them
• The wording affects memory and recall

Question 252

What was the Aim of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment Two?

Answer 252

To investigate whether leading questions can influence recall

Question 253

Who were the Participants in Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment Two?

Answer 253

150 students, split into 3 equal groups

Question 254

What was the Procedure of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment Two?

Answer 254

150 students watched a film showing a multiple car accident

They were given a questionnaire, and we split into 3 equal groups:

1. “How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other?”
2. “How fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?”
3. No question about speed was asked

One week later, they answer 10 questions.
The critical question was: “Did you see any broken glass?” (none was actually present)

Question 255

What was the Results of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment Two?

Answer 255

32% of the Smashed participants said yes

14% of the Hit participants said yes

12% of the Control Group said yes

Question 256

What was the Conclusion of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study: Experiment Two?

Answer 256

Two kinds of information goes into memory

Information during the event
Information after the event

This is the reconstructive hypothesis.

Question 257

What was the overall Conclusion of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study?

Answer 257

The change in the verb can affect recall.

Question 258

What were the Advantages of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study?

Answer 258

Inter-Rater Reliability: Loftus + Zanni (1975) found “the” is more powerful than “a” in planting memories in leading questions

R: Loftus used standardised film length and questions which were rotated, allowing for replication of the experiment

R/V: The high control over extraneous variables such as the actual speed of the cars travelling in the video allows for replication consistently making research reliable.

I.V: The critical questions were hidden amongst other questions, so ppts could not get the aim and show demand characteristics

I.V: L+P showed clips of varying speeds, which did not affect the estimated speed; strengthening the cause-and-effect relationship between leading questions and speed estimates

Question 259

What was the Application of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study?

Answer 259

Police practices have been improved as a result of research and now they avoid leading questions in interrogations

The Devlin committee was set up to investigate EWT in courts, and found that many people have been convicted of serious crimes, by EWT alone. As a result, the police and legal professionals are guided to minimise the use of leading Qs.

The justice system is aware of the need to keep witnesses in isolation before giving their statements to police/in court, in order to avoid leading questions from other witnesses distorting the accuracy of testimonies

The justice system should question the strength of EWTs in court and only rely upon it if it is consistent with other forensic evidence

Question 260

What were the Disadvantages of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study?

Answer 260

G: The sample only consisted of students which doesn’t represent society

G: Students regularly follow instructions from their lecturers, and may be more easily influenced by leading questions; making the sample unrepresentative of society

I.V: Results may be due to demand characteristics, and lack validity as ppts may have guessed of the car rather than actually remembering it as faster in the question condition

Task Validity: The ppts had more focused attention on the video than a real eyewitness would on an actual indirect. Therefore the experiment lacks task validity

E.V: A video was shown as opposed to being a real life situation. This reduces the amount of emotional strain, and questions validity

Question 261

What were the Ethical Issues of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study?

Answer 261

D: Ppts were deceived as they were unaware of the misleading questions in the interrogation interview (however, this was unavoidable as telling them about the leading question would increased demand characteristics)

P: Ppts were made to watch a car crash, which may have caused distress or psychological harm to ppts, especially if they have experienced a car crash
(However the video was a health and safety video; therefore the content was designed to be viewed by the public without causing stress or psychological harm – this doesn’t have to be known)

Question 262

What individual differences should be taken into account of Loftus + Palmer’s (1974) study?

Answer 262

People may interpret things differently

People may have different schemas and experiences, which may affect how they interpret the wording

Question 263

What was the Title of Criminological Practical?

Answer 263

The effect of weapon focus on recall

Question 264

What was the Aim of the Criminological Practical?

Answer 264

To investigate the effect of weapon focus on the accuracy of recall.

This was in order to test the study by Loftus + Palmer, which suggested that a weapon does affect recall, compared to a non- weapon (which in their study was a gun and a purse)

Question 265

What is the Background Information to the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 265

UUUUUUU

Question 266

What is the Null/Alternative Hypothesis of the Criminological Practical?

Answer 266

UUUUUUUU

Question 267

What was the Sampling Technique of the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 267

We gathered our participants using the opportunity sampling technique by asking Seven kings if they would like to be a part of our research.

This was used because it is time + cost efficient

Question 268

What Experimental Design was used in the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 268

Independent Measures

Question 269

What was the IV and DV in the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 269

We measured the independent variable which was environmental context
We this by making two videos which either did include a weapon, or did not

We measured the dependent variable which was accuracy of recall
We did this by creating a questionnaire about the video they watched 5 minutes before

Question 270

Who were the Participants in the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 270

We had 20 participants in total. We had a total number of 6 boys and 14 girls.

We divided our participants into 2 groups. 10 participants (control group) watched a video without a weapon in a classroom and 10 participants (experimental group) watch a video with a weapon in a classroom.

Question 271

What was the Procedure of the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 271

Both groups experienced the same conditions the films were both the same and tasted 3 we minutes each e. the situation and events were the same), the weapon was the only thing removed in one video.

After watching the video both groups were given 5 minutes of rest time, they then questionnaire in a classroom. They were given 10 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

They were then debriefed.

Question 272

How were the Ethical Guidelines met in Crimonological Practical?

Answer 272

Competence: This will be met because the experimenter has vast psychological knowledge, and so was competent to arrange the experiment.

Informed consent: This will be met by participants being asked for their consent before the experiment officially started.

Debriefing: This will be met by participants being given a brief before the experiment, and a debriefing after

Right to withdraw: This will be met by the participants having the right to withdraw at any part of the experiment

Psychological harm: This will be met by the experimenter giving participants the opportunity to discuss any problems/psychological stress that may have been gained from the video watched.

Question 273

What were the Results of the Criminological Practical?

Answer 273

The total score recalled out of 110 in group A was 60.
The total score recalled out of 110 in group B was 60.
The sum of rank in group A was 112.
The sum of rank in group B was 98

Question 274

What Inferential Statistics were used in the Crimonological Practical, and were they Significant?

Answer 274

The calculated/observed value of the Mann Whitney U test was 43. This was greater than the critical value of 27, for a one tailed test at (P<0.05) with N=10.

Therefore the result is is not significant and the alternative null hypothesis can be supported which states that:
“There will be no difference between the accuracy of recall of answers given in a questionnaire, between the group who watch a video with a weapon presence and a group who watch a video without a weapon presence (context of event), any difference between the 2 groups will be due to chance.

Question 275

What was the Conclusion of Crimonological Practical?

Answer 275

We concluded that that weapon focus has no significant effect on the accuracy of recall, and any difference will be due to chance.

This may be due to extraneous variables which may have affected the results, like the participants’ memories all differing.

This research is inconsistent with previous research by Loftus + Palmer who found that a weapon does affect recall, compared to a non-weapon (which in their study was a gun and a purse).

Question 276

What were the Strengths of the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 276

G: The sample consisted of 20 ppts’ which is the minimum required for a study to be generalisable to society

R: The questionnaire used closed questions: Everyone had the same questionnaire, and it wa standardised. Also, closed questions can’t be interpreted differently/ aren’t subjective This makes the findings reliable.

E.V: The experiment involved pots who are sixth form student, who were given the questionnaire in a school environment (a natural environment to them). This would influence more natural behaviour

I.V: We used a control group ofthose who watched a video without a weapon present. This allowed us to make comparisons between the group to establish a valid cause + effect relationship

I.V: The experiment took place in conditions that were controlled (e.g. the amount of time between watching the video and doing the questionnaire was the same for both groups); meaning they had no influence on results, making it internally valid.

Question 277

What were the Weaknesses of the Crimonological Practical?

Answer 277

G: The ppts were all sixth form students, which is not representative of society. Therefore, th findings were not generalisable.

G: The ppts consisted of 14 female and 6 male ppts. There weren’t not enough male ppts to generalise to males in society

R: We also were able to write a witness report on what was seen in the video. This can be interpreted differently, making this subjective, and thus unreliable

R: We didn’t repeat the test twice. Therefore, we are unaware if the same results would be found if the experiment was repeated; making it lack test-retest reliability

E.V: The experiment took place in a school environment where we watched an artificial recount of a criminal event. The procedure does not reflect a natural environment, making our results not ecologically valid/ task valid

I.V: The experiment couldn’t control certain extraneous variables to do with the participants, like how focused they were, whether they could hear what was being said, and their overall memory. This would’ve had an effect on the results, limiting internal validity

I.V: The volume of the video may have affected what they heard, which would be a confounding variable affecting the DV

Question 278

What was the Application of the Criminological Practical?

Answer 278

The results can be used to say that in a criminal event, a weapon will have no true influence on how much an eyewitness is able to recall about the criminal event

Question 279

What was the Criminological Key Question?

Answer 279

Is EWT too unreliable to trust?

Question 280

Why is EWT important to society?

Answer 280

EWT refers to the information given by a witness, after seeing an event/crime occur. It can be recorded in the police statement, or given as a verbal testimony in court.

EWT is often used to corroborate forensic evidence: A lot of forensic evidence is difficult for jurors to understand, and so they depend more on the eyewitness testimonies, whom they can relate to and have confidence in.

Jurors have to decide whether someone is guilty or not through the evidence given, and that’s an inaccurate EWT would lead to an inaccurate verdict.

Research has been undertaken to question the reliability of eyewitness testimony is. Some research has found it to be unreliable. Therefore, the Devlin Report (1976) was produced to conclude that courts should be cautious on solely relying on EWT without other evidence.

Question 281

How does Reconstructive Memory question the Reliability of EWT?

Answer 281

Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory describes how we try to fit what we remember with what we already know and understand.

This can lead to eyewitnesses reconstructing the memory to fit with their understanding of the world; which can lead to eyewitnesses reconstructing and altering their memory.

For example, a perpetrators appearance or accent may trigger schemas the witness already has, which will influence how they perceive the crime

Question 282

How does Post Event Information question the Reliability of EWT?

Answer 282

Post event information discusses what the eyewitness is exposed to after the event and before the trial.

New events/information can alter the memory of the event; as investigated by Elizabeth Loftus and her research.

It can then be difficult to isolate the true memory of the event, without the additional influences

Question 283

What other factors question the Reliability of EWT?

Answer 283

Individual characteristics of the witness.

Post event factors (like how the witness is questioned).

Duration of time between the event and recall of the event

Question 284

What is a big Problem with most Research into Eyewitness Testimonies?

Answer 284

Most research into EWT is via lab experiments; and so the ecological validity can be questioned

Question 285

How does Yuille + Cutshall’s study support the reliability of EWT, and challenge lab research into EWT?

Answer 285

Are use a naturalistic case study as opposed to a lab study; and found that real life eyewitnesses demonstrated great accuracy in their recall, and what influenced by leading questions

Question 286

How does Steyvers + Hemmer’s (2012) study support the reliability of EWT, and challenge lab research into EWT?

Answer 286

In recall of naturalistic scenes, previous knowledge drawn from semantic memory could contribute to accurate recall in episodic memory tasks.

This study seriously questions the way experimental research purporting to claim that EWT is valid is conducted.

Question 287

How is Lab experiments looking at EWT Ecologically valid?

Answer 287

Lots of experimental research actively constructs a situation that encourages flawed recall, such as the staging of unusual objects; which reflects what would happen in real life

Question 288

How does Yarmey’s (2004) study challenge the reliability of EWT?

Answer 288

Yarmey’s field experiment focuses on identification of a person in the street and a later set of photographs.

His findings do not support the argument for the reliability of eyewitness testimony is using a more realistic methodology, as

Correct identification only occurred approximately 50% of the time.

There is, however, an argument for further research to be undertaken outside a lab setting so that the findings can be considered more ecologically valid

Question 289

How do Flashbulb Memories link to the Reliability of EWT?

Answer 289

Flashbulb memories suggest that the memory of an event can be particularly clear, owing to the emotional impact it caused.

Hirst et al: Memory recall for an emotional event remains accurate for a prolonged period of time, although it is subject to eventually fading, as are most memories.

The evidence for flashbulb memory is mixed, and there are other studies that suggest it is a true phenomena and doesn’t increase accuracy of recall

Question 290

What is the Impact in Society if EWTs are Accurate?

Answer 290

It is important for the judge to have a range of evidence when deciding their verdict.

By using EWT, please have another source of evidence to put a guilty person in prison.

EWT can sometimes save police time.

Sometimes, the only an eyewitness may be the only evidence for certain crimes (e.g. rape)

Question 291

What is the Impact in Society if EWTs are Inaccurate?

Answer 291

The wrong people will be imprisoned.

Police could waste their time analysing the credibility of EWT.

People will lose faith in the criminal justice system.

Innocent people may be seen as guilty; guilty people may be seen as innocent. This means criminals will still be out in society.

Question 292

How does Thompson’s (1997) study support the reliability of EWT, and challenge lab research into EWT?

Answer 292

Thompson studied statements by the survivors of the sunken riverboat, Machionette. He found that, despite the emotional trauma, Rico was very accurate after many months.

This suggests that lab research may not reflect the conditions actually experienced by witnesses.
Participants in lab experiments often don’t experience the emotional involvement to what they’ve been asked to witness - Real life events are often unexpected, confusing and rapid

Real witnesses recognise the importance of this statement (as the police get involved, etc) ; Which isn’t the same with lab experiments

Question 293

How can people’s personality differ and affect the changes in Criminal/ASB?

Answer 293

People may not have a PEN personality, meaning that they may be stable or introverted. This would make them less likely to commit criminal/anti-social behaviour

Question 294

How can individual reactions to labels differ with regard to developing criminal/ anti-social behaviour?

Answer 294

The environment they were brought in differs the labels that were given to them. For example, a person environment may be adopted, and so even if their biological father is a criminal, the labels they would get would differ to him and so that persons less likely to become a criminal.

Not all individuals live up to their expectations/labels given to them, and may engage in Self Denying Prophecy

Question 295

How else might individuals differ that suggest we cannot always rely on the social psychology explanations of crime?

Answer 295

People’s biological makeup is different meaning that we can’t just rely on social psychology to explain criminal/anti social behaviour

e.g. Personality theory, brain injury, brain trauma, etc

Question 296

How can the self-fulfilling prophecy explain criminal/anti-social behaviour to explain the way some develop?

Answer 296

Growing up, we are given labels about us. This alters our way of thinking about ourselves, as well as how others think about us

Question 297

How does social learning theory explain the development of human behaviour?

Answer 297

We observe others doing certain behaviours, and remember that behaviour. We then attempt to reproduce that behaviour ourselves. We do this due to the motivation of getting the benefits that they got from that behaviour (vicarious reinforcement, or to be more like that role model (imitation). We do this from a young age.

It’s also to do with gender roles- and how men + women react to observations

Question 298

How do other causes for criminal/anti-social behaviour, including biological, explain human development?

Answer 298

It’s mainly to do with people’s biological differences, and how it can influence development

Question 299

What are the 15 statements for the HCPC Standards of Proficiency?

Answer 299

Practice safely and efficiently

Practice within legal and ethical boundaries

Maintain fitness to practice,

Be non-discriminatory,

Practice in an autonomous way (independently) and use professional judgement,

Be aware of the impact of culture, equality and diversity,

Work appropriately with others,

Assure quality of practice,

Be confidential,

Maintain Records appropriately

Understanding the key concepts of the professions knowledge base

Communicate effectively

Reflect on and review practice

Question 300

What does the BPS Code of Ethics + Conduct (2009) look at?

Answer 300

Looks at setting up a contract with the client, getting valid consent, focusing on confidentiality, looking at records and record keeping, supervision and working in a multidisciplinary teams

Question 301

What are the 4 Key Ethical Values?

Answer 301

Respect, competence, responsibility, integrity

Question 302

What are the 5 Core competencies?

Answer 302

Assessment, formulation, intervention/implementation, evaluation and research, communication

Question 303

What are HCPC Sanctions?

Answer 303

They use sanctions to maintain the standards.

For example relationships with clients, or delaying reports (which can delay treatment) can lead to sanctions