Crime and deviance Flashcards
What was Glenny 08’s theory of globalisation and crime
McMafia - emerged from the collapse of Soviet Union. Some people because rich quickly by buying cheap oil and selling it to the west for a profit. There was lots of disorders at this at thus time so the wealthy created mafia style organisations to protect them
What are the effects of the global crime economy?
(1) ECONOMIC (crime and the production of drugs provides jobs and wages for many people (2) LEADS TO INCREASE OF OTHER CRIMES (TAYLOR 97: unemployment caused by loss of high street and importing goods has made it more likely that people will commit crime)
What do Green and Ward 04 say about state crime?
State crime is committed by people with power so people cannot challenge it - more powerful people commit crimes against powerless people
What was McLaughlin’s theory on state crime?
Identified 4 categories : political crimes, crimes by security/ police force, economic crimes, social and cultural crimes
what are political crimes
State bribery and corruption
What are crimes by security and police force
Genocide and torture -> e.g the holocaust and Rwandan genocide (= country in east Africa + belgiam colony, 2 tribes - Tutsi + Hutu, Tutsi were more likely to get better jobs when it was a colony, however when the belgiams left, Hutu president elected + murdered, the Hutu militia blamed this on the Tutsis and this led to a mass murder of a million people
What are social and cultural crimes
Murder of Steven Lawrence
What are economic crimes
Official violations of health and safety -> Grenfell 2017 = 72 people died in a high rise block of flats, the building had been refurbished in 2016 using an aluminium composite material as cladding and the residents expressed concern over the safety of the flats. Fires in tower blocks have a strict stay put policy so the London fire brigades policy was said to be at fault -> building firm and bidding process still being investigated
How did Kellman and Hamilton explain state crime
Crimes of obedience = rules aren’t being broken but there is a conformity to the rules: 3 stages: (1) authorisation - e.g the Nazi party were formal and organised and the process of killing people involved lots of paperwork; they were just following rules (2) dehumanisation - e.g the soldiers would have been brought up to believe Jews were subhuman and responsible for everything wrong in society (3) routinisation - e.g no solider was responsible for the whole process, they just did a small task everyday
How did Cohen explain state crime
Technique of neutralisation = (1) it didn’t happen (2) it did happen but it was something else (3) it did happen but it was necessary -> proposes state relabels crimes as something else or excuse them as justified
What are some examples of green crime
Unregulated fishing, pollution from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, illegal dumping of toxic waste, pollution through the contamination of land/water/air through discharge and emission of dangerous and toxic substances
What was the 2015 Volkswagen scandal
VW fixed the emissions on their cars to appear better for the environment - cars passed MOT but instead caused more environmental damage than the UK would do in a year = received a fine
What was the deepwater horizon oil rig disaster 2010
Oil rig caught fire, minimum loss of man life, but massive damage to wildlife and fishing waters = affected local communities
What was the Mongolian case study - pollution from burning fossil fuels
Climate change has caused drought which has led people to move to the capital city - due to lack of infrastructure, many people have to burn coal to keep warm which leads to air pollution and health problems, mainly among babies
What was Beck’s theory of the “global risk society”
There has been a massive increase in risk of environmental disasters created by the actions of humans through usage of science and technology
Why is green crime so common (White)
Most important consideration is the wellbeing of people, so the environment is a secondary consideration -> e.g politicians push back policies to reduce climate change as it is not deemed as important as other things
Who commits green crime
Individuals, private business organisations, states and governments, organised crime
What are some examples of corporate crimes
Financial crimes, crimes against consumes, crimes against employees, crimes against the environment, state corporate crimes, abuse of trust
What is a state corporate crime
Grenfell
What is a crime against the environment
Volkswagen emissions scandal
What is an abuse of trust crime
Harold Shipman - a doctor convicted of murdering 15 patients but could’ve killed up to 200 by fraudulently getting opiates
Why does crime become invisible
The media don’t report it, there’s a lack of political will, corporate crime is complex and hard to understand, many corporate crimes aren’t defined as such, people may be unaware the crime has taken place
Explanation of crime - strain theory
Clinard and Yeager: this is based on the idea that success is important and gains status in society-> when businesses are under pressure to make profit they will commit crimes to do so (e.g not paying taxes)
What is differential association?
Sutherland sees crime as socially learned behaviour - linked to technique of neutralisation (everyone is doing it/carrying out orders from above)
What is labelling theory as an explanation of corporate crime
Nelken 2012 - the rich can afford to de label through the use of expensive lawyers and accountants so things such as charges can be reduced
How does Marxism explain corporate crimes
The reason businesses and the ruling class get away with crime is because they control courts and legal system under capitalism -> they are responsible for making laws that protect their own interests
What are different types of punishment
Prison, young offenders, tagging, probation, fine, criminal behaviour order, community service
What do functionalists say about punishment
Durkheim - punishment provides an outlet for public anger = builds solidarity and cohesion
What do Marxists say about punishment
The function of punishment is to maintain the existing social order -> part is part of the repressive state apparatus= defends ruling class property. Under capitalism, imprisonment is the main form of punishment because “time is money”
What is the role of the criminal justice system (x4)
Deterrence, form of public protection, retribution, rehabilitation
How has punishment changed
Foucault- historically when kings were very powerful, punishment was brutal and done publicly to show how strong sovereign power was. However the state became more powerful and the idea of control and discipline through surveillance began; prisoners are always being watched -> other institutions such as schools were designed in this way(CCTV)
What ones Durkheim say the 2 functions of deviance are
(1) BOUNDARY MAINTENANCE: crime serves a purpose in that society unites to condemn criminal acts - however crime doesn’t benefit the victims (2) ADAPTATION AND CHANGE: sometimes criminal acts can lead to social change - criminal acts if the suffragettes led to women getting the vote - however not all groups are able to influence change
,What do functionalists say about deviance
They believe it is inevitable due to poor socialisation and diversity
What is Kingsley Davies theory about deviance
Prostitution is a safety valve which maintains family units
What does polsky say about deviance
Pornography can channel sexual desire and stop adultery (however thus ignores the victim)
What is Cohen’s theory about deviance
Deviance and criminal acts can be a warning that an institution isn’t working (e.g reoffending rates in prison)
What is the evaluation of functionalist views on crime and deviance
(1) crime isn’t functional for the victims -> causes a climate of fear and can stop people from living their lives (2) functionalism looks at the benefits of crime but fails to explain why most citrin all acts occur
What is Merton’s strain theory
people engage in deviant behaviour when they’re unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means due to structural factors (lack of opportunity usually caused by poverty) and cultural factors (strong emphasis on success leads to strain and subsequent criminal acts).
What are the five patterns of deviance Merton identified
(1) conformity - non deviant and a non criminal citizen who conforms (2) innovation - poor education and unemployment means people turn to crime to achieve goals (3) ritualism - give up on achieving goals but stick to work until they retire (4) retreatism - drop outs like drug addicts (5) rebellion - reject goals but create new societies
What is the evaluation of strain theory
+ useful as it explain patterns of crime ; most crime is property crime and committed by the WC which fits this explanation
- doesn’t explain violent crime or crimes caused by groups
- presumes that everybody shares the same value consensus in society
Cohen status frustration
WC youth believe in the success goals of mainstream culture but their experience of failing in education, living in deprived areas and having limited job chances means they are denied status. This leads to status frustration and the formation of a delinquent subculture where stealing and vandalism replaces hard work
Cloward and ohlin - subcultural strain theory
Link different subcultures to access to illegitimate means - some areas can only access certain crimes: (1) criminal subcultures - in areas of an established criminal community where people learn on the job and there’s an access to wealth close by (2) conflict subcultures - gang violence is more likely to occur in zones of transition with a high population turnover and social disorganisation
(3) retreatist subculture - more likely to occur in areas of a more settled population where access to wealth is limited to people turn to drug use
Evaluation of subcultural strain theories
These theories do attempt to explain why different group commit crime but ignore ruling class crime
Evaluation of strain theory
(1) MILLER: the WC has a separate subculture so therefor strain theory does not apply; in this subculture, there are focal concerns like toughness, masculinity and freedom , and it’s these characteristics that lead to crime
(2) MATZA: most young people don’t stay delinquent; they’re more likely to drift in and out of lawbreaking than be career criminals
Control theory - Hirschi
The reason people don’t commit crime are social bonds with other people which encourages them to exercise social control - these bonds are conformity, commitment, attachment, belief -> people who have strong family bonds and commitments to look after them, employment and a sense of community are less likely to commit crime
What do Marxists say are the three main elements to laws being disproportionately against the WC
Criminogenic capitalism, the state and law making, ideological functions of crime and law
What is Criminogenic capitalism
(1) poverty and the need to commit crime to survive
(2) capitalism leads people to commit crime because of a desire to consume goods
(3) the WC feel alienated due to capitalism and this frustration leads to an increase in violent crime
-GORDON: crime is a rational response to capitalism
-HOWEVER, not all poor people commit crime
What do Marxists say about the state and law making
Laws are made and enforced to serve the interests of capitalism
(1) CHAMBLISS - most laws and prosecutions of crime are set up to protect private property
(2) SNIDER - very few laws limit business and control activities which make the ruling class richer
What do Marxists say about the ideological functions of crime and the law
(1) PEARCE: laws often look like they benefit the WC but in reality they perform an ideological function of controlling the workers
(2) ALTHUSSER: crime performs and ideological function and it controls people by making them believe that inequality is not caused by capitalism
Evaluation of Marxist explanation of crime and deviance
(1) ignores factors such as gender and ethnicity when explaining crime
(2) the theory presumes all WC commit crime
(3) Marxists argue that crime is a protest against oppression however most crime is intra- class committed against WC people
(4) capitalism doesn’t always cause crime and some capitalist countries have a low crime rate -> inequality causes crime
What do Neo Marxists think about crime
They believe that capitalism is wrong and creates inequality and the law protects the wealthy however they don’t be,I’ve the WC commit crime as a whole; they believe some people commit crime as a form of political protest
Neo Marxism - Gilroy
Criminal acts committed by black people were a form of resistance against police racism and harassment in society - HOWEVER if this weee true, first generation migrants would have a high crime rate as they experienced violent overt racism
What is new criminology
-Came from neo Marxism and is a combination of Marxist and labelling theory
- HALL: studied mugging and found that I’m order to distract from social inequality and political and economic crisis, the media created a moral panic about black crime and mugging = fuels racism and anger and distracts from the problems of society
Explanations for crimes of the powerful/ corporate crimes
(1) strain theory
(2) rational choice/ opportunity
(3) Marxism
(4) hegemonic masculinity
(5) differential association
(6) labelling
Why does strain theory cause corporate crime
Businesses and people in power feel pressure to succeed which causes strain so they commit crimes to be successful
Why does rational choice/ opportunity cause corporate crime
The risk is worth it because the punishment will not be too great - companies and powerful people are likely to get fined which they can usually afford
Why does Marxism cause corporate crime
The wealthy and powerful make the laws; they control the media which downplays corporate crime and its impact, protecting governments and big businesses
Why does hegemonic masculinity cause corporate crime
Toxic masculinity and a need to show power can lead to males thinking they can commit crime
Why does differential association cause corporate crime
In a culture where everyone is doing it and competition is rife, people will commit crimes as they are just doing the norm
Why does labelling cause corporate crime
The idea that the wealthy can afford to de label crime
Becker - moral entrepreneurs
all crime is socially constructed and the public are moral entrepreneurs along with the police and decide what in society is deviant
What are new changes to law that have occurred
(1) technology
(2) cyber bullying
(3) revenge pornography
(4)up-skirting
Who gets labelled
(1) WC
(2) BAME
(3)young people
(4)boys
(5)vulnerable people (e.g homeless)
Piliavin and briar - selective law enforcement
Police selectively enforce the law based on the time of day, area, gender and visible characteristics
Cicourel- typifications
Police use typifications when selecting people to stop or check on such as ethnicity, age, class and they are based on stereotypes
How many places can people get labelled
(1) people are stopped
(2) arrested
(3) cautioned
(4) prosecuted (court)
(5) convicted
(6) sentenced
What are the effects of labelling - LEMERT
identified 2 types of deviance and says that labelling causes people to continue to commit secondary deviance
(1) PRIMARY DEVIANCE: deviant acts that people do but society is not aware of (e.g speeding).- if no one knows about it then there’s no label
(2) SECONDARY DEVIANCE: when someone gets caught, the deviance becomes secondary and becomes a master status (e.g someone caught accessing child pornography would be identified as a paedophile) which can lead to further deviant behaviour when they face rejection from society
Cohen - folk devils and moral panic
Came up with the concept of the deviancy amplification spiral of mods and rockers which led to a moral panic
- 2 youth subcultures with distinct physcial appearances, on a bank holiday the mods and rockers travelled to the coast and a small amount of trouble occurred and arrests were made, the next bank holiday more mods and rockers arrived + more police and members of the public and there were more arrests and calls by the government for stricter laws
Why might crime statistics be socially constructed
(1) people don’t report crime
(2) people aren’t aware a crime has occurred
(3) people don’t see the point as criminals don’t always get caught
(4) people are afraid to report crime
(5)selective law enforcement
Evaluation of labelling theory
(1) it’s deterministic (suggests a self fulfilling prophecy but people can reject the label)
(2) fails to explain why deviance happens in the first place
(3) focuses on the criminal and ignores the victim
(4) fails to explain where the labels came from in the first place
What are the 3 causes of crime that right realists propose
Biological differences, socialisation and the underclass and rational choice
What is the right realists explanation of biological differences as a cause of crime
(1) WILSON AND HERRNSTEIN: certain groups of people with particular personality traits such as aggressiveness were far more likely to commit crime than other groups
(2) HERRNSTEIN AND MURRAY: people who commit crime are more likely to have a lower intelligence than the general population
- EVALUATION: LILLY ET AL - differences in intelligences are only a 3% gap so minimal
What is the right realists explanation of socialisation and the underclass as a cause of crime
MURRAY: identified the “new rabble” group who are welfare dependent and fail to socialise children properly and leave children to have delinquent role models
What is the right realists explanation of rational choice as a cause of crime
(1) CLARKE : decisions to commit crime is a choice based on rational calculation of the consequences - if the punishment is not strong and there’s an opportunity to deceive through illegitimate means then they will do so
(2) FELSON: “routine activity theory” - there must be a motivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian -> if all of these variable align, crime will occur
Evaluation of right realism
(1) most crime isn’t rational and most violent crime isn’t premeditated
(2)the theory contradicts itself, if crime is caused by biology or socialisation it cannot be a rational choice
(3) rational choice can explain corporate crime as people take the risk knowing the consequence is unlikely
3 ways of tackling crime
(1) TARGET HARDENING: makes it more difficult for people to commit crime (e.g car alarms or ring doorbells)
(2) ZERO TOLERANCE: tougher prison sentences and fine more crimes - however the reoffending rate is high in countries with a big prison population
(3) BROKEN WINDOWS: based on the idea that vandalism leads to further criminal damage - if vandalism, such as broken windows get repaired quickly, then people have pride in their community, by leaving these acts, area become slums (issue= repairs are expensive)
What do left realists think about crime and deviance
They see inequality and capitalism as a problem but want gradual change rather than a revolution
Left realism - YOUNG: “aetiological crisis”
No one has explained the increase of crime since the 1950s. Victim surveys show the impact of crime and the fear of crime is vast.
Lea and young - 3 factors of causes of crime
(1) relative deprivation: you are poor compared people the rest of society
(2) subculture: the ability to join a subcultural society this depends on population density and access to criminal activities
(3) marginalisation: people don’t feel represented and feel that there’s no one interested in their welfare as no one is in power like them
Late modernity and exclusion and crime - YOUNG, LEWIS
(1) YOUNG: in late modern society, there is instability, insecurity and exclusion which makes crime worse. Late modernity has led to a media saturated society where cultural inclusion has led to an increase in economic exclusion.
(2) LEWIS: says thus may have led to the riots in 2011 where looting took place
3 features of late modernity
(1) growing individualism (putting yourself first)
(2) weakening of informal controls - break down of family and communities (e.g more divorce)
(3) growing economic inequality and economic change = globalisation (gap between richest and poorest growing)
Evaluation of left realism
(1) ignores gender
(2) focuses on make crime
(3) ignores other crimes
(4) fails to explain crimes by the wealthy and state crime
Left realist approach to tackling crime
Democratic policing and reducing social inequality -> at the moment, democratic policing isn’t happening - communities don’t feel protected and they feel the police only enter communities to alert people rather than protect them
Policing and crime - KINSLEY, LEA AND YOUNG
The police clear up rate is too low to act as a deterrent -> because the police are losing trust from the public, they aren’t getting information, so the police are doing more military policing which alienates communities and they lose touch
Evaluation of tackling crime
These policies are expensive and the results are more likely to be long term and difficult to measure, so the short term impact will be smaller
Gender and crime
(1) in 2022 women made up 4% of the prions population
(2) of these, many were parents, 50% had been victims of abuse
(3) and 50% had no settled accommodation
(4) the crimes women most commonly committed were shoplifting and fraud
Why don’t women commit crime and- OTTO POLLAK
-Men are socialised to act in a chivalrous manner towards women, and women are naturally much more secretive and subversive so are better at getting away with crime, whereas men are much more likely to be convicted.
- Evidence for this = Flood Page study where 1 in 11 female offenders has been cautioned, but the figure for men was 1 in 7
- HOWEVER -> “Double Deviancy” = when female criminals behave in an unfeminine way, and commit violence or sexual crimes, they are demonised and often given harsher prison sentences than males
SEX ROLE THEORY (parsons, heidensohn and dunscombe + marsden)
= 3 elements which meant women are less likely to commit crime
(1) PARSONS -> women are socialised into an expressive gender identity which means that they’re less likely to commit violent crime as the norm is to be gentle, caring and nurturing unlike the make instrumental role
(2) HEIDENSOHN -> women are controlled so it’s much harder for them to commit crime: in the home, in the workplace and in public
(3) DUNSCOMBE AND MARSDEN: Triple Shift -> women don’t have time to commit crime due to having housework, paid work and emotion work.
Reasons why some women don’t commit crime - CONTROL THEORY, pat carlen
In her study, she found that women who didn’t stick to stereotypes or were unable to achieve the gender deal (the stereotype of women being good wives, mothers, daughters) or the class deal (work hard to get qualifications and a job) ended up in jail; these women are likely to have no close family ties and no way to earn money and no place to live
Reasons for increase in female criminality - liberation thesis, fran Adler
Since the rise of feminism, there’s been less patriarchal control so women have more freedom and independence to behave like males and thus has led to an increase in female criminality -> HOWEVER, feminism has impacted on MC women, but the women who ended up in prison have often been controlled by men and are not likely to have benefitted from many changes in the law
Feminisation of poverty
Figures show that women continue to be more likely to live in poverty than men -> 45% are single parents, 90% of these are women
Hegemonic masculinity
Males commit crime due to their masculine identity. One characteristic is aggressiveness which can lead men to commit violent crime. They are also likely to be risk taking so are far more likely to believe that they’re going to get away with crime
Masculinity crisis - Mac en ghail
When areas of the country lost traditional industries, such as mining or factory work, young men had few job opportunities. The breakdown of families has led to more single parent in and a lack of male role models in the family. Young men turn to crime as a way of letting out frustration but also gaining status
Labelling theory - masculinity and crime
Males are stereotyped as aggressive and are more likely to be labelled as troublemakers. This can lead to them gaining a master status as a criminal which leads to a self fulfilling prophecy and more crime. HOWEVER this theory assumes you cannot reject the label
What opportunities do men have to commit crime more than women
- less social control
- more free time
- more positions of responsibility
EVALUATION of masculinity and crime
(1) it presumes that there’s only one type of male identity but this is no longer the case
(2) it presumes all males will commit crime but this is not always the case
(3) it could be that males don’t commit more crime but get convicted more
(4) post modernists would argue that gender plays no role in identity, therefor cannot be linked to criminality
Explanations for trends in ethnic minority criminality
(1) DEMOGRAPHICS: MORRIS-> BAME people make up a higher percentage of young people, and young people are far more likely to commit crime
(2) POLICE TARGETING: HALL-> during the 1970s, the crime of mugging was racialised. The police and media created a moral panic that this crime had increased when really the numbers hadn’t change much meaning that young black males were more likely to be stopped, searched and disproportionately arrested for crime
(3) POLITICAL PROTEST: GILROY-> BAME people are targeted by the police and this is one contributing factor towards criminal behaviour being a political protest against racism and oppression - HOWEVER, if this theory was true, crime rate amongst BAME people would’ve been highest when people first came to the UK
(4) LOCALITY THEORY: WADDINGTON ET AL -> BAME people are more likely to live in zones of transition which are areas where no one wants to live where there are few facilities and little community and crime rate is high
Explanations for ethnic minority criminality
(1) INSTITUTIONAL RACISM:
-canteen culture- REINER: casual racism, jokes and the use of offensive language occurs in informal settings within the police which leads to racial stereotypes and attitudes
(2) TRIPLE QUANDARY: SEWELL - some young black males may be more likely to commit crime due to 3 factors: (1) being brought up in a single matrifocal family means boys turn to crime for role models (2) institutional racism means males have little opportunity in education/ work as they’re seen as troublemakers in society (3) the glamorisation of crime in social media through music such as drill
(3) LEFT REALISM/ SUBCULTURES: (1) relative deprivation (being poor compared to the rest of society) (2) marginalisation (not being represented in government) (3) subcultures (access to criminal gangs)
Trends in social class and crime
- prison populations are made up more from the WC than the MC and UC
- WC= street crimes such as theft or assault
- MC = white collar crime, corporate crime and cyber crime
Examples of corporate crimes
- financial crimes such as tax fraud
- crimes against consumers such as misselling of PPI
- crimes against employees
- crimes against the environment
- state crime
- the abuse of trust
Explanations for trends in social class and crime
(1) SELECTIVE LAW ENFORCEMENT: the WC are likely to be arrested but the MC are more likely to get a verbal warning
(2) SELECTIVE LAW CREATION: the MC and UC create the law so are able to manipulate the law to benefit their own needs
(3) LABELLING AND STEREOTYPES: the WC are labelled as being more Criminogenic therefore the criminal justice system sees them as making a conscious choice to commit crime
Explanations for white collar and corporate crime
(1) STRAIN THEORY: MERTON - there’s a culture of success in companies, if people cannot succeed legitimately, they will commit crime to achieve targets
(2) RATIONAL CHOICE/ OPPORTUNITIES: they make a choice based on the rewards being high, the risk of being caught being low and the punishment not too strong
(3) MARXISM: the criminal justice system is set up to protect businesses as the ruling class control it
(4) HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY: men are socialised to be competitive, aggressive and the breadwinner so commit crime to appear successful
(5) DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION: companies and employees justify behaviour by saying they’re just following orders and they’re only doing what everyone else is doing
Why do the working class commit crime
(1)Marxism: (1) Criminogenic capitalism = the WC commit crime to survive + as a response to capitalism (2) alienation leads to frustration which leads to crime (3) as a response to capitalism and the need to possess material goods (4) law enforcement and law making is set up to protect property - laws target WC (chambliss)
(2)labelling theory (Becker)
(3)functionalism - strain theory (merton)
(4)left realism - relative deprivation, marginalisation, subcultures (Lea + Young)
(5) right realism - underclass theory (Murray)
(6) subcultural theory - status frustration (cohen)
How do the media portray crime
The media over represents certain crimes which leads to dramatic fallacy which is when certain crimes and events are focused on to such a certain extent that people believe these events are common which leads to crime being a social construct.
The media concentrates on certain things: (1) immediacy (the event needs to have happened recently to be on the news) (2) it needs to be dramatic (3) needs to have a level of personalisation (4) you can relate to someone well known or of high status (5) crimes that involve violence or that are different have an element of novelty are also reported on
SURETTE: violence/sex/drugs are over represented; more recent reality shows tend to focus on non white underclass offenders
Can the media lead people to cause crime
(1) imitation: there are incidents where crimes have been linked to offenders having watched violent films and games
(2)Arousal: the increase in online porn and child pornography has led to an increase in accessing child porn but also possibly an increase in violence against women and children
(3)Desensitisation: the media makes people desensitised to criminal activity so it becomes the norm
(4)Glamorising crime: SEWELL - ‘Triple Quandary’ = one factor that led to an increase in criminal activity was the glamorisation of crime - drill music/ drugs =the norm/ women objectified/ violence = all seen as glamorous
(5)Transmitting desires for things you cannot afford - LEA AND YOUNG = relative deprivation leads to crime. The media constantly bombard people with images of material goods they cannot afford and this leads to people committing crime to afford them.
Moral panics and media amplification of crime
The media creates a moral panic by amplifying the actions of one group which leads to an increase in policing and often an increase in crime. COHEN- ‘mods and rockers’ : teenage subcultures of mods and rockers = south coast on bank holiday, led to minor crimes, media over reported, led to more police, more people and an increase in crime which led to the deviance amplification spiral
HALL: media moral panic into “mugging in the 1970s” led to crime being racialised, seen as a black problem, led to police targeting = increase in arrests. HOWEVER, it’s possible that the media also led to groups against the racists being able to meet up to protest against them.
Increased media technology has led to an increase in cybercrime -WALL
Wall identities 4 types of cybercrime
(1) hacking
(2) identity theft
(3) cyber pornography
(4) cyber violence (bullying)
How relevant are moral panics nowadays
MCROBBIE AND THORNTON 96: the idea of a moral panic is outdated due to new media; the constant rolling news and webs/blogs/social networking has changed people’s attitudes and reaction to crimes. Postmodernists say diversity of media reporting means people are less likely to always believe conventional news. Most deviant events are short lived as news is always changing
BECK: in society there are so many risks now that people are unlikely to get so anxious about things as its constant
HALL: says the constant headlines of asylum seekers, spoiled celebrities, turns on sink estates, politicians, MPs, businessmen has led to a sense of exasperation but not a moral panic -> the media overplays how the issues can be solved, making people feel safe rather than panicky. Hall says people do have rational concerns about crime; where policing is limited and resources are not placed and people in these areas will have fears - these fears are rational and based on the likelihood they will be victims of crime so are not unjustified.
VICTIMOLOGY: social class, age, gender, ethnicity, sexuality
SOCIAL CLASS:
Poor people are most likely to be a victim of crime
Middle class people are most likely to fear being a victim of crime
Rich people are most likely to report and have a crime investigated
AGE:
Infants are most at risk of being murdered
Teens are most likely to be victim of violence, sex crime and theft
Elderly are most likely to be victims of abuse
GENDER:
Men are more at risk of being victims of violent crime - 70% of homicides are male victims
Women are more at risk of sex related crimes, domestic violence and trafficking
ETHNICITY:
Ethnic minorities are more at risk of being victims of crime - especially those of mixed ethnicity
The Homer office estimates 106000 hate crimes per year = 300 per day
SEXUALITY:
In 2018, 8.1% of all hate crimes were linked to sexual orientation and 0.3% were linked to transgenderism
Victim: male - homophobic, female - transphobic, 25-47, homophobic - harassment and distress, transphobic - common assault
Perpetrators: men, white, 39-50
Social construction of victimisation
being a victim can be seen as a social construction because some people are unaware they have ever been a victim. Others may not see themselves as victims or not be seen as a victim due to how society views their crimes.
Impact of victimisation
HOYLE: anger, anxiety, depression, poor health, powerlessness, PTSD, shock, panic, fear of further victimisation, poor health, disrupted sleep
WALKLATE: SECONDARY VICTIMISATION: crimes often have many victims. Witnesses who have to give evidence in court and family members who have to hear details of rape trials and honour crimes can also been seen as victims. Also reliving the crimes causes further pain for victims.
Explanations for VICTIMOLOGY
(1) RADICAL/ CRITICAL VICTIMOLOGY: structural factors such as patriarchy and poverty place powerless groups at greater risk of victimisation (however this ignores the role the victim plays in their victimisation and reveals the role of the powerful in victim hood)
(2) POSITIVIST VICTIMOLOGY: TIERNEY -> identifies 2 factors = (1) “victim proneness” - the characteristics that make victims different from and more vulnerable than non victims (2) “victim precipitation” - the actions of the victim (however this ignores the wider structural cases of victim hood + victim blaming)
Theoretical approaches and social policy for crime prevention - LEFT REALISM
- KINSEY: police need to improve clear up rates and spend more time investigating crime to restore faith from the public
- recognises that offenders and victims come from the most marginalised parts of society and the solutions should focus on tackling poor housing, education and unemployment
Solutions to crime
THERE IS A NEED TO:
(1) build community cohesion
(2) have intensive parenting support
(3) tackle social deprivation
(4) have community control of policing
Criticisms of left realism approach
(1) they’re soft on crime and ficus on the causes of crime whilst downplaying the role of the offender
(2) not all poor people commit crime so the initial explanation is flawed
(3) they only focus on visible WC crimes
(4) the solutions are hard to measure as they have a long term impact and are often expensive
Environmental crime and the “broken windows policy” - WILSON AND KELLING (right realism)
To prevent deterioration of social cohesion and the sense of community, it’s necessary to keep environments in good physical condition and the police should follow a zero tolerance policy to crack down on all antisocial behaviour
Routine activity theory - FELSON AND CLARKE (right realism)
A crime occurs as a result of 3 conditions:
(1) there’s a suitable target
(2) there’s no suitable guardian - e.g CCTV
(3) there’s an offender present who makes a rational choice to commit such a crime
Situational crime prevention - CLARKE (right realism)
Argues that situational crime prevention aims to prevent crime in location rather than catch offenders -> e.g dividers on park benches to stop homeless people sleeping on them
Criticisms of right realist policies
(1) can lead to labelling of criminals
(2) they don’t address the wider causes of crime
(3) there’s a basic assumption that crime is rational which isn’t always the case
(4) zero tolerance policing can be consuming and expensive and moves resources away from more serious crime
Reasons for punishment
- DETERRENCE: punishment discourages people from offending
- REHABILITATION: punishment can be used to reform or change offenders
- INCAPACITATION: remove an offender’s capacity to offend again
- RETRIBUTION: “paying back” = an expression of society’s outrage
Restorative justice
- more use of community sentencing rather than imprisonment for less serious offenders
- face to face meetings between victims and offenders
Theory of punishment (functionalism and Marxism)
(1) FUNCTIONALISM: believe punishment is necessary in value consensus-> criminals have broken the norms and values of society and by punishing them, it’s demonstrating right from wrong to the rest of society
(2) MARXISM: punishment helps maintain capitalism -> punishment gives the rest of society a scapegoat to blame someone for society’s problems
The changing roles of prison
- used to be used as holding before main punishment
- since the 1980s, politicians have called for tougher and longer sentences
- in liberal democracies, prison is the most severe form of punishment
Mass incarceration
most prisoners are young, male, WC; ethnic minorities are over represented
Alternatives to prison
- rise in community based controls like tagging or community service
- INNES -> this has “cast the net of control” over more people, enabling control to penetrate deeper into society
Why prisons don’t work
- school for criminals
- may weaken social bonds
- ex con= very powerful master status
- = prisons therefore manufacture crime rather than rehabilitation
FOUCAULT - the birth of prison
(1) sovereign power: the monarch has absolute power of people and their bodies; punishment was carried out on the body as well as being brutal and carried out in public
(2) disciplinary power: new system of discipline that seeks to govern people through the soul instead of the body -> e.g power through the panopticon = a design of prison in which all of the cells are visible to the guards from a central watchtower but the guards are not visible to the prisoners -> Foucault claimed that prisoners didn’t know if they were being watched so had to act as if they were which makes control “inside” the prisoner
EVALUATION:
- he exaggerates the extent of control - inmates of prisons and mental asylums are able to resist
- CCTV may not reduce crime but displace it to another location
- few criminals are put off by CCTV
Surveillance theories since Foucault
- everybody watches everybody (e.g politicians fear the media’s surveillance of them may uncover information about them)
- modern media allows the many to see the few
Liquid surveillance
- described as a softer from of surveillance
- people are tracked more and more via new technologies as data accumulates to unprecedented levels
Evaluation of surveillance
surveillance may work to limit smaller crimes however its use to monitor crimes like terrorism can be limited. Profiling using surveillance leads to racism and targeting of certain ethnic groups which leads those groups to feel alienated
Why have new crimes and criminal acts increased
(1) CULTURAL GLOBALISATION: there’s been an increase in awareness of western culture and therefore has been a desire to adopt this lifestyle = led to increase in immigration
(2) SUPPLY + DEMAND: increase in materialism has led to a demand for consumer goods and services which has led to an increase in sex trafficking, modern day slavery, etc.
(3) MORE OPPORTUNITIES: access to technology means there is an increase in types of crime (e.g fraud)
How does poverty in the uk cause crime
More inequality -> TAYLOR: globalisation has led to a decline in retail and manufacturing = more unemployment =poverty and increased crime
How do companies commit crime
Disorganised capitalism: LASH + URRY = globalisation has led to production of goods in developing countries and the consumption of goods in the west. This means companies can travel to other countries and set up factories where health and safety and labour laws are broken and often not prosecuted
Why might individuals commit crime
(1) Global risk society -> BECK: globalisation has led to a global risk society as 24 hour news coverage of often man made disasters (e.g climate change) leads to climate of fear and panic and an increase in hate crime
(2) growing individualism -> BAUMANN: growing individualism and a sense of self combined with a decrease in community and family ties makes people more likely to commit crime
