Crime And Deviance Flashcards

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1
Q

What is crime and deviance

A

Both socially constructed, dependant on society’s reaction to specific behaviours.
Sociologists often examine how crime and deviance occur - causes.
Also concerned with impacts on the order of society and how we can control criminal behaviour.

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2
Q

Functionalist views on order and control

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  • social control is maintained through socialisation into value consensus and the collective conscience.
  • Durkheim examines impacts of crime and deviance on social order, suggesting crime performs both positive and negative functions.
  • Merton examines the role of social structures on individuals, society is unequal.
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3
Q

Subcultural views on order and control

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  • suggest that some groups react negatively to the norms and values of society.
  • structural disadvantages lead to young males rejecting the value consensus of society and so develop their own structures of norms and values.
  • form subcultures to achieve status which is denied in wider society, often includes criminal activities.
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4
Q

Marxists views on order and control

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  • Marxists suggest that the ruling class uses its power to exert control over the working class.
  • ruling class maintains order through social institutions, force or ideological.
  • crime demonstrates a lack of control over parts of the working class by the ruling class and punishment is a form of control over the masses.
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5
Q

Feminists views on order and control

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  • control leads to women having less freedom and therefore less likely to commit crimes
  • carlen and heidensohn suggest that the control of women leads to lower levels of female deviance in society.
  • Adler suggests controls on women are diminishing which is leading to higher female crime rates.
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6
Q

Interactionist views on order and control

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  • crime is a product of the interactions between individuals and the way they are portrayed by social institutions such as media.
  • media is a form of social control, which tries to maintain social control through generating moral panics.
  • negative labelling by social institutions leads to withdrawal from society and greater status from those with similar characteristics.
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7
Q

Realist theories on order and control

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  • Both left and right realists both see crime as a real problem that requires solutions to establish social order.
  • right realists focus more on control of individuals who do not conform, by controlling their opportunities to commit crime and by inflicting harsh punishments to restore order.
  • left realists believe social order would be corrected by tackling the inequalities in society which cause criminal behaviour.
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8
Q

Durkheim’s functionalist theories

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  • Durkheim suggests crime is a normal part of a healthy society and performs functions for society. Optimal amount of crime is required for society to function, but too much or too little would lead to atrophy or a stagnated society.

Positives of crime:

  • Boundary maintenance -
    Criminal and deviant behaviour helps to reinforce the value consensus of society.
    Some behaviours help to reinforce peoples belief in the collective conscience - society’s moral code.
    Society unites to condemn the wrong doers and this leads to a collective agreement that the behaviour is wrong and shouldn’t be repeated.
  • Adaptation and change -
    Deviant behaviours demonstrate a changing attitude of the population to the established social order. These behaviours, performed by small social groups begin to be accepted by wider society as the norm and are ultimately ceased to be viewed as deviant.
    Examples include protests for the civil rights movement, stonewall riots for the gay rights movement and womens liberation movement used unconventional means to push for equality.
  • Safety valve -
    Crime warns society that there are issues which need to be addressed. Polsky and Davis suggest that minor criminal and deviant behaviour can act as a release, which prevents worse crimes from occurring.
  • Evaluation of Durkheim -
    Difficult to measure the optimal amount of crime in society.
    Durkheim offers little explanation as to why crime occurs other than that it’s due to frustration.
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9
Q

Merton’s functionalist theories of crime and deviance

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Merton suggests that crime and deviance are a product of dysfunction in society. He suggested that there was structural inequality and that the inability of some members to achieve the American dream led to a strain to anomie.

  • Mertons strain theory -
    Merton suggested that people would react in different ways to the American dream. Some would continue to accept socially approved goals (American dream) and strive to achieve those through either legitimate or illegitimate means. Others would reject these goals and either deviate or conform to socially approved behaviours.

Deviant adaptations to strain

  • conformity
  • innovation
  • ritualism
  • retreatism
  • rebellion

Conformity
Majority of Americans accepted the American dream and worked hard to achieve it through legitimate means such as pursuing and education and choosing the right pathways.

Innovation
This is where individuals accepted the socially approved goals but found that these could not be achieved through legitimate means and so they innovated by turning to organised crime, fraud, white collar crime and corporate crime.

Ritualism
Accepted that they were unlikely to achieve the American dream of wealth and power, but continued to conform to the norms and values of society, working hard and gaining qualifications.

Retreatism
Saw routes to achieve goals being blocked, and would therefore reject the norms and values of society. With little motivation or conformity, these individuals would ‘retreat’ from society and instead turn to alchohol, drug abuse and petty crime.

Rebellion
Challenged the socially approved goals and looked to achieve their own goals in society. These individuals rejected legitimate means of achieving goals and would look to adopt their own methods such as activism and protests.

Evaluations of Merton
Recognised that the role of structural inequality in crime has highlighted the lack of opportunity available to some.
Strain is dependant upon people actually wanting to achieve the socially approved goals. Offers explanation for utilitarian crimes but not crimes of passion or why some choose to victimise others.

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10
Q

Cohens Subcultural theories of crime and deviance

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Cohen was influenced by mertons ideas of inequality in society and agreed that crime is caused by a reaction to blocked opportunities. However, cohen suggested that it was not individuals, but Subcultural groups that were responsible for most crime.

Cohen examined young males from low income backgrounds in the USA in the 1950s. As a response to educational failure and inability to achieve status through legitimate means, these males suffered from status frustration. They turned to Subcultural groups in order to obtain status from their peers.

Alternate status hierarchy. As status was unobtainable through legitimate means, these groups formed their own norms and values which subverted those of society. Status was awarded based upon deviant activities rather than conformity.

Cohens work focused on non utilitarian crime which had little financial motive, such as criminal damage, joy riding, violence and anti social behaviour. Reaction to blocked opportunities - cohen argued that behaviours were a result of seeking revenge against society.

However, cohen fails to explore the opportunities for further criminality based on location.

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11
Q

Becker’s interactionist theories of crime and deviance

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Becker examined the impact of labelling on individuals in education. He also examined social reactions to the deviance (the outsiders). Claimed that acts are only deviant because society deems them to be. Individuals may not consider these acts to be deviant themself. For example, a fight in sport is not viewed as deviant but a fight on the street is.

Once an activity is labelled as deviant, this label becomes attached to the individual. Based upon the initial deviant action, the individual may be labelled as violent or a thief or junkie. This then becomes their master status, which overrides all other characteristics.

Individual is labelled as deviant, they are then blocked from opportunities and further deviance occurs as a reaction. Self fulfilling prophecy.

Becker focuses on the underdogs of society which gave sociology greater understanding of how criminals were stigmatised. Did little to explain why initial acts of crime were committed. Often sided with criminals rather than the real victims of crime.

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12
Q

Althusser’s Marxist theories of crime and deviance

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As a Marxist, Althusser focused on the reproduction of inequality in society. Ruling class controlled the behaviours of the working class through social institutions.

Ideological state apparatus. Where the dominant norms and values are passed on by the ruling class. Effective in making people control their own behaviour. Ideas such as meritocracy made the working class feel as though they did not deserve high status.

Repressive state apparatus. Some people reject the ideology of the ruling class and this renders the ISA ineffective. Social order and control needs to be established through the repressive state apparatus, such as police force, legal system and armed forces to control dissenting voices.

Not based on actual research. People can reject the ideology of the ruling class without resorting to actions which require the RSA to intervene. Democratic principles in the UK require the state to obtain the consent of the masses in order to govern.

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13
Q

Marxist criminogenic capitalism

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Marsists suggest that capitalism is responsible for much of the crime committed in society. Bonger (1916) suggested that by its very design, capitalism was criminogenic. Capitalism creates false needs whilst simultaneously denying people the means to achieve these.

Advertising promotes goods and services which people desire despite not needing (false needs). Capitalists keep wages low in order to maximise profit. People turn to crime in order to meet these false needs.

Chambliss (1976) crime is universal throughout the social class system due to the individualistic and utilitarian nature of capitalism. Working class criminals have limited means to commit crime and gravitate towards violent acts and exploitation of weaker individuals. The ruling class have unlimited means and so can commit more subtle forms of crime such as corporate crime (false accounting).

Gordon (1976) capitalism is a dog eat dog society and competition generated leads to criminal activities. Crime is a rational act in order to get ahead of others in competitive positions. Especially in USA, working class criminals commit crime to survive due to reduced welfare safety nets.

Structural inequality caused by capitalist system has been cited by many as a reason for crime. 
Doesn’t explain why working class criminals don’t target higher social classes for criminal activity. 
Doesn’t explain why some working class people don’t turn to crime despite precarious financial situations.
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14
Q

Marxist selective law enforcement

A

Focus on the crimes of the working class leading to more arrests for petty crimes rather than corporate crimes and white collar crime. Perception that street crime is more harmful to society and so law enforcement agencies act on street crime.

2019 - 47,000 knives or sharp instruments related offences in UK.

2019 - 69,000 people seriously injured and 147 died in work related accidents.

Snider (1993) argued that corporate and white collar crime costs society more than street crime. Individuals involved in corporate crime are rarely prosecuted and even less likely to receive custodial sentences. Corporate witnesses for Grenfell injury were given immunity from prosecution for testifying.

Focusing on working class crime causes misrepresentation of working class as criminals. Gordon (1976) prosecutions of corporate crimes suggest that the criminal justice system is fair.

Evidenced by increasing policing of working class and ethnic minority areas. Complex nature of corporate crime and financial power of companies leads to lower rates of conviction. National audit office - fraud cost private sector businesses an estimated £144bn and individuals £10bn in 2015.

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15
Q

Marxist law creation

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Marxists argue that the ruling class has control over the ability to make laws. Chambliss argued that the purpose of law was the protect private property from the masses. Laws protecting the interests of the ruling class started to appear with the ownership of private property.

Ruling class utilises connections within elected officials to pass laws that protect private property. Large companies use lobbying groups to pass laws in the interests of the ruling class. The use of the media to make working class activities appear deviant and in need of control.

By criminalising the acts of the working class this benefits the ruling class as they protect their property. Theft, trespass and copyright laws protect the interests of the ruling class who can continue to make profits. Snider pointed out that governments are reluctant to pass laws that interfere with running of businesses.

Tax legislation - allows companies to avoid paying tax in the UK with registered offices in tax havens. Failure to implement recommendations of grenfell inquiry due to cost to businesses. Transatlantic trade and investment partnership abandoned in 2019.

Evaluations
Laws are created for the harmonious running of society.
Laws protect us from violence, theft and fraudulent activities.
Consumer rights legislation protects the rights of consumers.

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16
Q

Left realist theories of crime and deviance

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Left realism developed in response to the need for sociology to find real solutions to criminal behaviour. Drawing on ideas of structural inequality and the interactions between people and the state, set out to provide realistic solutions to criminal behaviour.

Multiple aetiology - Young suggested that crime was a result of many factors interacting with one another.
No single factor is the cause of crime but rather a mix of informal and formal social controls, structural inequalities and the agency of the offender.

Lea and young argued that there were three key factors influencing levels of crime.

  • Relative deprivation
    Crime rates higher amongst those in lower social and economic strata of society.
    Pressures of media to achieve economic success leaves people feeling deprived in relation to others.
    Need for parity with others leads to crime.
  • Subcultures
    Collectivist values of subcultures provide forms of relief from relative deprivation.
    This can be gained through achieving status or through disorganised crime to meet needs of lifestyle.
    Links to anti social subcultures and youth subcultures as coping mechanism for blocked opportunities.
  • Marginalisation
    Marginalised groups have minimal representation in society and express frustrations through violent and aggressive means.
    The role of the media, government and social institutions impact on the marginalisation of groups, leading to feeling ‘left out’ or ‘left behind’.

Evaluations
Lea and young’s work draws upon a range of influences from different perspectives.
Influential in forming policy and providing solutions to crime, particularly under new labour.
Impacts of capitalism accelerated in global era, but recorded crime has fallen.

17
Q

Interactionist folk devils and moral panics

A

Cohens folk devils and moral panics outline the relationship between media, police and acts of deviance. Highly influential in looking at relationship between media and crime and the representation of different social groups.

Mods and rockers. Cohen examined subcultures in the 1960s and clashes at seaside resorts in the UK. Mods and rockets clashed and the media reacted to this by creating these subcultures. Cohen followed proceedings from beaches to the courts.

Moral panics. Cohen found that the reality of what happened was different from what was reported. Media created a moral panic (suggesting actions of young people were damaging to the society’s morality). They were one of several agencies to take on role of moral entrepreneur (enforcing their morality onto others in society) (moral crusade).

Folk devils. As a by-product of creating moral panics, the media and other agencies also created folk devils. These were oversimplified and ill-informed generalisations of individuals involved in deviant behaviour. Mods and rockers became folk devils and this elicited a reaction from authorities.

Deviancy amplification. After first reporting of events, cohen noticed harsher policing against those deemed to be folk devils. Government and police clampdowns increased the criminality of actions, while media reporting increased the number of young people involved. This led to deviancy amplification - more crime as a result of reporting.

18
Q

Right realist theories of crime and deviance

A

Rational choice theory. Wilson suggested crime was a rational choice that people made after weighing up the risks and rewards of their actions. If rewards outweigh risks then people more likely to commit crime. Linked into harsher sentencing and limiting rewards by criminal behaviour.

Broken windows theory. Alongside kellings, Wilson developed broken window theory. Maintaining appearance of an area key to upholding law and order. Police to target undesirable behaviour.

Biological differences. Wilson argued that some people were biologically predisposed to crime. Effective socialisation does not always work - some people, such as extroverts, those with impulsive personalities and low intelligence are more likely to commit crime.

Evaluations. Wilson’s ideas looked to tackle different approaches to criminal behaviour but mostly based upon assumptions of lower-class criminality. Ignores impact of policies put forward by the political right that create conditions for crime.

19
Q

Right realist theories of crime and deviance

A

Murray has advocated privatisation and personal responsibility for ether than state control.

Murray has argued that there is an existence of an underclass in society. This group exists on the edge of mainstream society, and lack socialisation into norms and values of society. Decline of traditional family values, with lone parents, high unemployment and dependant on benefits.

Murray has been critical of welfare dependancy. Permissive policies that have promoted idleness and illegitimacy. Suggested that their was an underclass of ‘idle young men’ being inadequately socialised by lone parents, lacked male role models to discipline them.

Shadow economies. Young males lack motivation and resilience, according to Murray, that is provided by father figures. Look to earn through working in shadow economies - conterfeit goods, drug dealing, low-level security work. Gain status through masculinity and not conforming to social norms and values.

20
Q

Gender and crime - chivalry thesis

A

Police less likely to record female crimes. Judiciary less likely to hand down custodial sentences to women. Men are socialised into protecting women.

Assumptions about womens criminality being harmless. Society perceives women to be good yet in need of protection. Crimes such as prostitution and petty thefts are less likely to be recorded.

Makes more likely to receive custodial sentences and seen as career criminals, women’s crime more likely to be perceived as error of judgment. 9% of women have a criminal record compared to 32% of men.

21
Q

Gender and crime - sex role theory

A

Parsons applied his ideas of gendered roles in the family to criminal and deviant behaviours. Instrumental role was taken on by the male in the family, providing discipline and finances. Expressive role was taken on by the female - caring and nurturing the family.

Boys are socialised into more aggressive pursuits and are given greater independence over time and space. Girls are centred on home and socialised into traits that are less likely to lead to criminality.

Boys will look for male reinforcement through joining subcultures or gangs. Socialised into behaviours linked to criminality.

Based on outdated notions of gender socialisation, doesn’t take into account changes in contemporary society. Rising female criminality as socialisation into gender roles has changed. Feminists suggest that lower female criminality is the result of excessive controls on women, including the process of socialisation.

22
Q

Gender and crime - hegemonic masculinity

A

Messerschmidt argues that masculinity is a social construct and that the dominant form of masculinity can cause criminal behaviours.

Males socialised into showing dominance over others. Physical strength valued over intellect. Image is reinforced through media. Young males bombarded with images of what a ‘real’ man is. Reinforced as these males are seen as desirable to women.

At school, male react to being treated as subordinate to teachers, and at work to managers.

23
Q

Reasons for working class crime

A

Merton - strain theory - assumption that working class criminality is the result of strain caused by denial of legitimate opportunities. Results in innovation and retreatism. Subcultures replace legitimate status through illegitimate means of achieving status.

Marxists believe that society simply focuses more on working class crime rather than middle class. 
Laws created and enforced to punish the working class. 
Criminogenic capitalism disproportionately impacts on working class and they are most deprived. 

Cicourel - legal system looks unfavourably upon working class delinquents, while middle class can negotiate justice system.

Rational choice theory - costs of crime are much less for the working class.

24
Q

Corporate crime

A

Corporate crime is often under reported in society and this leads to a misrepresentation of crime figures. Defined as actions or omissions on behalf of or by companies that are punishable by law. Rarely carries prison sentences, rather focuses on financial punishments for corporations.

Main types:

Financial offences ~

  • illegal accounting practices, posting higher profits to manipulate share prices and deceive shareholders.
  • tax evasion (illegal declarations of earnings or omission of earnings to evade tax).
  • money laundering (cleaning money that is the proceeds of criminal activity).
  • bribery (state officials in exchange for lucrative contracts)

Offences against consumers ~

  • sale of goods that do not meet standards
  • illegal testing practices and claims
  • defrauding consumers of money
  • concealing defects from public

Offences against employees ~

  • pensions scandals
  • discrimination in the workplace
  • violation of labour laws
  • violation of health and safety legislation

Offences against environment ~

  • air and water pollution
  • hazardous waste
  • illegal manufacturing practices