CPCE def Flashcards
1
Q
development: 3 types
A
definition: a systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death
3 areas: physical development, cognitive development and psychosocial development
2
Q
Human Growth and development changes
A
qualitative: change in structure or organization (such as sexual development) or quantitative: change in number, degree or frequency (content changes such as intellectual development)
continuous: changes are sequential and cannot be separate easily (personality development) or discontinuous: certain changes in abilities or behaviors can be separated from others which argues for stages of development (language development)
mechanistic: reduction of all behavior to common elements (instinctual, reflexive behavior) or organismic: because of new stages, there is change or discontinuity it is more than a stimulus response where the organism is involved including the use of cognition (moral or ethical development)
3
Q
self-concept
Do infants have a sense of self?
When do infants begin to show self-recognition?
A
Self-concept may be defined as your perception of your qualities, attributes and traits.
At birth, infants have no sense of self. In early months this quickly changes.
By 24 months, most infants show signs of self-recognition; they can identify
social categories they are in such as age and gender, “who is like me and
who is not like me”; they exhibit various temperaments.
The pre-school child’s self-concept is very concrete and physical. By 8 or so,
they can describe inner qualities.
By adolescence, self-concepts (self-descriptions) become more abstract and
psychological. Stabilization of self-concept attributes continues.
Cultural and family factors influence the development of attributes and some traits
4
Q
Genotype
A
the genetic (inherited) makeup of the individual.
5
Q
Phenotype
A
the wan individual’s genotype is expressed through
physical and behavioral characteristics.
6
Q
What does Tabula rasa mean and who coined the phrase?
A
John Locke’s view that children begin as a ‘blank slate’
acquiring their characteristics through experience.
7
Q
Plasticity
A
for most individuals lifespan development is plastic representing an easy and smooth transition from one stage to the next
8
Q
Resiliency
A
the ability to adapt effectively despite the experience of adverse circumstances
9
Q
What is the sometimes referred to as the missing link in the mental health profession?
A
Neuroscience
10
Q
4 principle neurotransmitters and their roles
A
Acetylcholine – important for memory, optimal cognitive functioning,
emotional balance and control
b. Serotonin – affects feelings, behaving, thinking; critical for emotional
and cognitive processes; vital to sleep and anxiety control
c. Dopamine – important for emotional wellness, motivation, pleasurable
feelings
d. GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) – helps reduce anxiety, promotes
relaxation and sleep
11
Q
Abraham Maslow:
What area was his specialty?
What did he develop?
A
(Humanistic Psychologist)
Maslow developed the ‘hierarchy of needs.’
People are always motivated to higher-order needs:
food/water to
security/safety to
belonging/love to
self-esteem/prestige/status to
self-actualization.
We go from filling our needs from the physiological level to the social level to
the cognitive level.
12
Q
Robert Havighurst
A
Havighurst identified stages of growth²each one requiring completion of the last one for success and happiness.
Developmental tasks arise from physical maturation, influences from
culture and society, and desires and values of the person.
Developmental tasks are the skills, knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes
that an individual has to acquire through physical maturation, social learning, and personal effort
13
Q
Behaviorism:
What is it?
Who are the two biggest contributors to behaviorism?
A
This is a learning approach. Behaviorists believe the environment manipulates biological and psychological drives and needs resulting in development. Learning and behavior changes are the result of rewards and punishments
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner
13
Q
Behaviorism:
What is it?
Who are the two biggest contributors to behaviorism?
A
This is a learning approach. Behaviorists believe the environment manipulates biological and psychological drives and needs resulting in development. Learning and behavior changes are the result of rewards and punishments
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner
14
Q
Reward
A
A reward is a positive-reinforcing stimulus which maintains or increases a behavior.
15
Q
Punishment
A
When a behavior results in the termination of a positive-reinforcing stimulus or the beginning of a negative stimulus. Such a behavior should weaken or drop out
16
Q
Law of effect:
Who formulated it?
What is it?
A
Edward Thorndike formulated this law which states that when a stimulus-response connection is followed by a reward (reinforcement), that connection is strengthened. In other words, a behavior’s consequences determine the probability of its being repeated.
17
Q
Conditioning Principles: 9
A
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Reinforcement schedule Fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval Variable interval Spontaneous recovery Stimulus generalization
18
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
food-salivation; bell-salivation
19
Q
Operant conditioning
A
pick up toys - get a hug or cookie
20
Q
Reinforcement schedule
A
This schedule can be continuous or variable.
Behaviors established through variable or intermittent reinforcement are
tougher to extinguish
21
Q
Fixed Ratio
A
reinforce after a fixed number of responses
22
Q
Variable ratio
A
reinforce, on the average, after every nth (e.g. 3rd) minute
23
Q
Spontaneous recovery
A
after a rest period, the conditioned response reappears
when the conditioned stimulus is again presented.
24
Stimulus generalization
Once a response has been conditioned, stimuli that are
similar to the conditioned stimulus are also likely to elicit the
conditioned response.
25
Psychoanalytic approach and psychosexual development
There is an interaction between our internal needs/forces and the environment.
Other psychoanalytic concepts include: castration anxiety, penis envy,
pleasure principle, and reality principle.
26
Five stages of development: Freud
| What are the stages and ages?
Psychoanalytic theory
5 stages:
oral (birth to 18 months)
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b. anal (2 to 3 years)
c. phallic (3 to 5 years)
d. latency (6 to 12 years)
e. genital (12 to 19; others have said it never ends)
The phallic stage has the Oedipal (son attraction to mother) and Electra
(daughter attraction to father) complexes. These are conflictual times
for the child.
27
Libido
Psychoanalytic
| the basic energy or force of life. It consists of life instincts and death instincts
28
Fixation
Psychoanalytic
incomplete or inhibited development at one of the stages.
29
Defense Mechanisms
unconscious protective processes that help us control
primitive emotions and anxiety
include: repression, projection, reaction formation, rationalization, displacement, introjection, regression, denial, sublimation
30
Repression
rejecting from conscious thought (denying or forgetting) the impulse or idea that provokes anxiety.
31
Projection
avoiding the conflict within oneself by ascribing the ideas or motives to someone else
32
Reaction Formation
expressing a motive or impulse in a way that is directly opposite what was originally intended
33
Rationalization
providing a reason for a behavior and thereby
| concealing the true motive or reason for the behavior
34
Displacement
substituting a different object or goal for the impulse or
| motive that is being expressed.
35
Introjection
identifying through fantasy the expression of some impulse or motive.
36
Regression
retreating to earlier or more primitive (childlike) forms of
| behavior
37
Denial
refusing to see something that is a fact or true in reality
38
Sublimation
may be viewed as a positive defense mechanism wherein anxiety or sexual tension or energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such as work
39
Erik Erikson
| How many stages did he propose?
Psychosocial development in psychodynamic theory
Erikson identified eight stages wherein a psychosocial crisis or task is to be mastered.
```
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Identity vs. role confusion
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Integrity vs despair
```
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Trust vs. mistrust
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
birth to 1½ years, Hope: infant develops trust if basic needs are met
41
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
(1½ to 3), Will (a sense of self)
| Infant asserts self; develops independence if allowed.
42
Initiative vs. guilt
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
(3 to 6), Purpose (goal setting)
| Children meet challenges; assume responsibility; identify rights of others.
43
Industry vs. inferiority
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
(6 to 11), Competence
| Children master social and academic skills or feel inferior
44
Identity vs. role confusion
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
(adolescence), Fidelity (ability to commit)
| Individual establishes social and vocational roles and identities or is confused about adult roles
45
Intimacy vs. isolation
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
(early adulthood), Love
| Young adult seeks intimate relationships or fears giving up independence and becoming lonely and isolated.
46
Generativity vs. stagnation
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
(middle adulthood), Care (investment in
| future) Middle-aged adults desire to produce something of value, and contribute to society.
47
Integrity vs. despair
| -corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue
Older adults view life as meaningful and positive or with regrets.
48
Jean Piaget: what did he develop and how many stages are there?
What two tendencies do we inherit?
4 stages of Cognitive development: sensorimotor, prep-operational, concrete operational, formal operational
2: organization and adaptation
49
Organization:
| Who came up with this tendency?
how we systematize and organize mental processes and knowledge.
Jean Piaget
50
Adaptation:
Who proposed this tendency?
How many processes within adaptation?
the adjustment to the environment.
Jean Piaget
Assimilation: modifying the relevant environmental events so they can be incorporated into the individual's existing
structure.
Accommodation: modifying the organization of the individual in response to environmental events.
51
Schema
Jean Piaget
another word for a mental structure that processes information, perceptions, and experiences
52
Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
a. Sensorimotor (birth to 2): the child differentiates self from objects; can think of an object not actually present; seeks stimulation.
b. Preoperational (2 to 7): language development is occurring; child is egocentric; has difficulty taking another's point of view; classifies objects by one feature.
c. Concrete operational (7 to 11): begins logical operations; can order
objects (small to large; first to last); understands conservation.
d. Formal operational (11 to 15): moves toward abstract thinking; can test hypotheses; logical problem solving can occur
53
Lawerence Kohlberg
| How many levels of relating to the relationship between self and society
studied moral development; thinking and reasoning are involved
three levels:
Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional
54
Preconventional
Who proposed it?
What are the stages included?
Lawerence Kohlberg: levels relating to the relationship between self and society
Stage 1: A punishment and obedience orientation exists.
Stage 2: An instrumental and hedonistic orientation prevails
(obtaining rewards)
55
Conventional
Who proposed it?
How many stages?
Lawerence Kohlberg: levels relating to the relationship between self and society
Stage 3: Interpersonal acceptance orientation prevails;
maintaining good relations, approval of others.
Stage 4: A law and order orientation exists; conformity to legitimate authorities.
56
Postconventional:
Who proposed it?
How many stages?
Lawerence Kohlberg: levels relating to the relationship between self and society
Stage 5: Social contracts and utilitarian orientation exists; most values and rules are relative.
Stage 6: A self-chosen principled orientation prevails; universal ethical principles apply
57
Urie Brofenbrenner
took an ecological approach to the study of human
development, i.e., he believed it was important to look at all levels and systems impacting a person.
For example: A troubled adolescent is a part of several systems such as family, school, peers, community, etc. We must be sensitive to influences of all of these
systems.
58
Social Learning Model
These models see the importance of social environment and cognitive factors.
These go beyond behaviorism, i.e., the simple stimulus-response paradigm because we can think about the connections between our behaviors and
the consequences.
59
Albert Bandura
| What theory did he develop?
developed a social learning theory. One of the central concepts of this cognitive-behavioral approach is self-efficacy
60
Self-efficacy
What is is?
What are the four mechanisms self-efficacy is facilitated through?
The belief that we can perform some behavior or task
```
4 mechanisms:
modeling after others' behaviors
vicarious experience (watching others perform a behavior)
verbal persuasion from others that one can do a task
paying attention to one own physiological state
```
61
Nancy Chodorow
One of the first women to speak out against the masculine bias found in psychoanalytic theory
62
Jean Baker Miller
"Toward a New Psychology of Women"
large part of women's lives has been spent helping others develop emotionally, intellectually, and socially
This "caretaking" is a central concept differentiating the development of women from men
63
Judith Jordan
Self-in-relation theory:
a. people grow toward relationships throughout life
b. mature functioning is characterized by mutuality and deepening
connections
c. psychological growth is characterized by involvement in complex and
diversified relational networks
d. mutual empathy and empowerment are at the core of positive
relationships
e. growth-fostering relationships require engagements to be authentic
f. growth-fostering relationships stimulate growth and change in all
relational-cultural theory
people
g. goals of development are characterized by an increasing ability to name
and resist disconnections, sources of oppression, and obstacles to mutual
relationships
64
Gail Sheehy
Wrote Passages: predictable crises of adult life
passages: transitional periods between life stages and are different for most individuals
65
intelligence
adaptive thinking or action (Piaget) or ability to think abstractly
Charles Spearmann believed there was general intelligence (g) and special abilities (s)
66
Emotional intelligence:
who proposed it?
what is the definition?
proposed that one component of intelligence can operate out of human emotions, that is, independently of the person’s reasoning and thinking processes. This emotional intelligence is a learned developmental process beginning in infancy and proceeding to adulthood through varying levels of development. An emotionally intelligent person is self-motivated, empathic, grasps social signals and nonverbal messages, and develops strong interpersonal abilities
67
propinquity
concept that implies nearness or proximity. For example, in selecting a partner, one is most likely to become involved with someone who
lives nearby
68
prevalence
how many (what percent) of the population has the disorder
69
Incidence
how many new cases occur within a given time frame such as a year
70
Prognosis
the anticipated course of a disorder
71
Etiology
what causes a disorder i.e. why does it begin
biological, psychological, and social dimensions are involved
72
One-dimensional
this model assumes that a disorder is caused by one factor such as a chemical imbalance.
Research does not support this linear model.
73
Multidimensional model definition
these models assume that a disorder is caused by the
interaction of several factors and dimensions.
The context of the individual is important and includes the biology and behavior of the individual as well as cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural dimensions.
74
Multidimensional models: Biological
Genetic factors appear to make some contribution to all psychological disorders by influencing cognitions, behaviors and emotions.The nervous system influences psychological disorders primarily through biochemical neurotransmitters in the brain.
75
Multidimensional models: Behavior and cognitive factors
How we acquire and process
information, store and retrieve it influences behavior. We also acquire and learn behaviors through conditioning and social learning
76
Multidimensional models: emotions factors
The emotion of fear, for example, has an important
influence on our bodies and influences our behavior.
Emotion is viewed as temporary and short-lived.
Mood is a more persistent period of emotionality.
77
Multidimensional models: cultural social and interpersonal
. Gender is an important influence on the incidence of
some disorders. The amount and kind of social relationships
and contacts help predict longevity by reducing the incidence
of certain physical disorders perhaps by influencing the
immune system
78
ego-dystonic
the individual perceives the symptoms or traits as
| unacceptable and undesirable.
79
ego-syntonic
the individual perceives the symptoms or traits
| as acceptable
80
Diagnosis
the process of determining whether a presenting problem meets the criteria for a psychological disorder
81
5 areas covered in MSE
a. appearance and behavior
b. thought processes
c. mood and affect
d. intellectual functioning
e. sensorium
82
Difference between biopsychosocial history and MSE
mental status exam is a description of an individual at a specific point in time
83
Neuropsychological assessment
These instruments measure brain dysfunctions and measure such abilities as language expression, attention and concentration, memory, motor skills, and
perceptual abilities.
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What is referred to as a therapeutic road map?
treatment plan
85
Depressive Disorders
Depressive disorders do not contain any disorders related to mania. Bereavement has been excluded as part of a major depressive episode.
Physical causes for depression must always be considered. The most common and
effective treatment for depressive disorders include medication and psychotherapy. The two most effective psychotherapeutic interventions appear
to be cognitive behavior therapy and interpersonal therapy.
Specific disorders include:
a. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
b. Major depressive disorder, single episode and recurrent episode
c. Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
d. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
86
Bipolar and related disorders
Mania and hypomania criteria focus on changes in energy and activity.
Depression and anxiety are often viewed as comorbid with bipolar and
related disorders.
Mood-stabilizing medication and psychotherapy are the typical recommended treatments. Specifically, psychoeducation, family-focused
therapy, CBT, and interpersonal therapy have been shown to be effective.
Disorders include:
a. Bipolar I disorder
b. Bipolar II disorder
c. Cyclothymic disorder
87
Anxiety Disorders
Fear and anxiety are part of anxiety disorders as well as a variety of physiological symptoms such as heart palpitations, sweating, and shortness of
breath. Comorbidity with depressive disorders is common although anxiety is
often characterized by anxious anticipation and fear unlike depressive disorder.
Anxiety disorders often have an early-age onset and suicide risk assessment
is important. Effective interventions include CBT, behavior therapy and
relaxation training.
Anxiety disorders include:
a. Separation anxiety disorder
b. Selective mutism
c. Specific phobia
d. Social anxiety disorder (social phobia)
e. Panic disorder
f. Agoraphobia
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Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorders feature obsessive preoccupation and
engagement in repetitive behaviors. Previously classified in the anxiety
disorders category, the principal feature of these disorders is not anxiety.
Comorbidity with other diagnoses is not uncommon and these include depressive
and anxiety disorders, hypochondriasis, eating disorder, and ADHD, to name a
few. Treatment approaches for obsessive-compulsive disorders involve a
combination of psychopharmacologic treatment and psychotherapy. CBT
and a form of CBT namely, exposure and response prevention, have also shown
to be effective.
In this category, disorders include:
a. Obsessive-compulsive disorder
b. Body dysmorphic disorder
c. Hoarding disorder
d. Trichotillomania (hair-pulling) disorder
e. Excoriation (skin-picking) disorder
89
Leon Festinger
cognitive dissonance: source of motivation
90
Neo-freudians
placed more emphasis on the ego
Karen Horney
Erich Fromm
Harry Stack Sullivan
91
Object Relations theory
based on psychoanalytic concepts
interpersonal relationships as represented intrapsychically
object means a significant person or thing that is the object or target of one's feelings or drives
92
Person-centered (client, Rogerian)
reacted against the directive psychoanalytic approach which put counselor in charge of giving advice, teach and interpreting
Focus was more onto the person's phenomenological world reflecting and clarifying their verbal and nonverbal communication
The process of becoming, moving clients to self-actualization, and
the relationship between client and counselor were critical concepts.
The focus of counseling went from past to present and was on feelings.
The counselor showed: unconditional positive regard, genuineness
(congruence), and empathic understanding. These are the core or facilitative
conditions of effective counseling
93
Gestalt (Fredrick "Fritz Perls)
This approach is based on existential principles, has a here-and-now focus, and
a holistic systems theory viewpoint.
Individuals experience needs. To the extent a need is in the forefront, it
represents the figure and other needs are ground i.e., in the background. As
the need is met, it completes the gestalt and a new need takes its place. The goal for individuals in therapy is to become whole beings, to complete
‘gestalts.’
This is an experiential therapy, encouraging the taking of responsibility by the
client. The counselor uses confrontation and encourages the client to stay with
feelings and to relive experiences and finish business.
Role playing, two-chair techniques, and dream work are used.
Interpretation is done by the client not by the counselor
94
Individual Psychology:
| Alfred Adler
The belief in the uniqueness of each individual is influenced by social factors.
Each person has a sense of inferiority and strives for superiority.
We choose a lifestyle, a unified life plan, which gives meaning to our
experiences which include habits, family, career, attitudes, etc.
Counseling goals are to help the client understand lifestyle and identify
appropriate social and community interests. Also, counseling strives to explain
clients to themselves and for them to overcome inferiority.
Techniques used are those leading to insight such as life histories, homework
assignments, and paradoxical intentions
95
Existential:
Vitor Frankl
Irvin Yalom
Rollo May
Phenomenology is the basis of existential therapy.
Phenomenology is the study of our direct experiences taken at their face value.
We have freedom of choice and are responsible for our fate.
We search for meaning and struggle with being alone, unconnected from others.
Anxiety and guilt are central concepts: anxiety is the threat of non-being and
guilt occurs because we fail to fulfill our potential.
The goal of existential therapy is the Understanding of one's being, one's
awareness of who one is and who one is becoming.
Awareness of freedom and choosing responsibility are other goals.
The authentic relationship is important in existential therapy.
96
Logotherapy: victor frankl
The principles underlying his theory are individuals
a. motivation to find meaning in their life journey,
b. freedom to choose what they do, think and how they react, and
c. with freedom of choice comes personal responsibility.
97
Rational Emotive Behavior therapy
Albert Ellis
98
Multimodal Therapy
Arnold Lazarus
99
Cognitive and behavioral counseling
The goals of counseling are to identify antecedents of behavior and the nature of the reinforcements maintaining that behavior. The counselor helps create
learning conditions and may engage in direct intervention.
100
DBT Dialectical behavior therapy
Marsha Linehan developed this therapeutic approach for the treatment of borderline personality disorder
A basic principle of DBT, in addition to the usual cognitive behavioral
techniques, is helping clients increase emotional and cognitive regulation
by learning the triggers that lead to their undesired behaviors. The dialectical
principle of recognizing two sides to situations, such as the need for accepting
change and recognizing the resistance to change, receives attention.
DBT is viewed as a long-term therapeutic intervention in part because it requires the learning, practicing and acquiring of a number of skills by the client. The skills are conceptualized in the following four modules:
a. Mindfulness ± paying attention to the present moment nonjudgmentally,
and e[periencing one¶s emotions and senses full\.
b. Distress tolerance ± accepting and tolerating oneself and the current
situation, often painful and negative, in a non-evaluative way.
c. Interpersonal effectiveness ± developing effective strategies for asking
for what one needs, saying no as appropriate, and coping with interpersonal
conflict.
d. Emotion regulation ± identifying emotions and obstacles to changing
them, reducing vulnerability, and increasing positive emotions.
95
The DBT practitioner might also use such tools as diary cards (tracking
interfering behaviors), chain analysis (analyzing sequential events that lead to behaviors), and the dynamics of the milieu or culture of the client's group. For effective use of dialectical behavior therapy, the counselor must obtain
training in order to teach the required skills and facilitate the application of these skills on an individual and group basis with a variety of clients.
101
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy REBT: Albert Ellis
REBT is based on the philosophy that it is not the events we experience that
influence us, but rather it is our interpretation of those events that is
important.
Individuals have the potential for rational thinking. In childhood, we learn
irrational beliefs and re-indoctrinate ourselves on a continuing basis. This leads to
inappropriate affect and behavior.
Belief system, self-talk and ‘crooked thinking’ are major concepts.
Therapy follows an A-B-C-D-E system as follows:
A = external event (an activity or action)
B = belief²in the form of a self-verbalization.
C = consequent affect²which may be rational or irrational.
D = Disputing of the irrational belief which is causing the affect/behavior.
E = Effect (cognitive)²which is a change in the self-verbalization.
Emotive techniques in therapy include role-playing and imagery.
This theory teaches that self-talk is the source of emotional disturbance.
102
Multimodal therapy: Arnold Lazarus
This is a comprehensive, holistic approach sometimes classified as eclectic. It
has strong behavioral ties.
This multimodal model addresses seven interactive yet discrete modalities
summarized in the acronym BASIC ID.
These seven modalities are:
B = Behaviors (acts, habits and reactions)
A = Affective responses (emotions and moods)
S = Sensations (five senses as touch, smell, sight, hearing and taste)
I = Images (how we see selves, memories, dreams)
C = Cognitions (insights, philosophies, ideas)
I = Interpersonal relationships (interactions with people)
D = Drugs which is to signify, more generally, biology including nutrition
Assessment covering all seven modalities is necessary to determine total human
functioning.
Counseling techniques from a variety of theoretical perspectives are used. These
include anxiety-management training, modeling, positive imagery, relaxation
training, assertiveness training, biofeedback, hypnosis, bibliotherapy, and
thought stopping
103
Reality therapy: William Glasser
Although it is based on Choice Theory, Glasser continued to refer to the therapy as Reality.
Individuals determine their own fate and are in charge of their lives.
Our perceptions control our behavior and we behave (appropriately or
inappropriately) to fill our needs. We have five genetically-based needs:
survival, love and belonging, power or achievement, freedom or
independence, and fun.
Choice theory means we act to control the world around us and the real
world is important to the extent it helps us satisfy our needs. We may not satisfy
our needs directly.
Taking responsibility is a key concept.
Characteristics of reality therapy include:
a. emphasize choice and responsibility
b. reject transference ± by being yourself as the therapist
c. keep the therapy in the present ± the past is not critical
d. avoid focusing on symptoms ± focus on how to meet needs
e. challenge traditional views of mental illness ± take a more solutionfocused approach
104
Feminist Therapy
Basic perspectives include gender as central to therapeutic practice, awareness
and understanding of the role of sociocultural influences as they manifest
themselves in therapy, and the need to empower women and address societal
changes.
The basic principles of feminine psychology which underlie feminist therapy are
(from Corey, 2017):
a. the personal is political and critical consciousness ± the problems of
the client have societal and political roots which often result in
marginalization, oppression, subordination and stereotyping
b. commitment to social change ± therapy is not only for the individual
but to advance a transformation in society. Therapists must also
take action for social change
c. women’s and girls’ voices and ways of knowing, as well as the voices
of others who have experienced marginalization and oppression,
are valued and their experiences are honored ± Zomen¶s
perspectives are considered central rather than using the male
experience as the norm against which women often appear deviant
d. the counseling relationship is egalitarian ± clients are experts on
themselves and their oppression is recognized; therapy is a
collaborative process
e. a focus on strengths and a reformulated definition of psychological
99
distress ± intrapsychic factors are only a part of the explanation for
the pain experienced; psychological distress is reframed as a
communication about unjust systems; symptoms can be reframed
as survival strategies
f. all types of oppression are recognized along with the connections
among them ± all clients can be best understood in the context of
their sociocultural environments. In addition to helping clients
make changes in their lives, feminist therapists work toward
societal change
Therapeutic processes and techniques which may be used in feminist therapy
include: gender-role analysis and intervention, empowering techniques, selfnurturance activities, power analysis and intervention, bibliotherapy,
assertiveness training, reframing and re-labeling, groups, and social action
105
Relational cultural theory
The central premise of this approach is that human growth develops in
connection with others rather than through separation and individuation.
This applies to the growth and development of men as well as women.
Relational-cultural theory addresses how people respond to relational and cultural
adversity. Issues in counseling may include power, privilege, marginalization, and
acceptance rather than pathology.
Connections are central and powerful in peoples’ lives. Neuroscience appears
to corroborate this. The brain changes through connections and relationships with others or with a therapist.
Judy Jordan (Wellesley Center for Women) is one of the early scholars of
relational-cultural theory. She believes we need to move from a human growth
mode of separation to a relationship one. As social beings, cultural values and connections are paramount and individuals thrive in relationships.
106
Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT)
Solution-focused brief therapy does not address the history or past
experience of a problem. Understanding the nature of the problem is not
necessary to generating solutions to a problem.
One focus of solution-focused brief therapy is to maintain a positive orientation
believing that the client can construct solutions. Stress is placed on what is
working for the client, the exceptions that exist to the problem pattern.
Some principal therapeutic techniques and procedures include:
a. Exceptions question: what were the circumstances when the problem
did not exist; these circumstances represent news of difference.
b. Miracle question: If a miracle happened, how would you know and
what would be different?
c. Scaling questions: Using a scale from one to ten, identify changes in
the client¶s affect, an[iet\, etc. FocXs is on an\ positiYe change and
then duplicate or increase that change.
Brief therapy models are becoming more important with the need to meet health
maintenance and employee assistance program needs for services. The number of
sessions may be limited to six or eight or fewer. Even in college counseling
centers, limits to the number of counseling sessions are common.
Brief therapy dictates setting specific goals early in the counseling relationship.
The focus may be on resolving the immediate problem which led to the
counseling intervention and the development of coping skills to assist counselees manage current and future problems.
A related therapeutic approach is intermittent counseling. A client sees a
counselor on and off as problems arise sometimes over several years.
Not all client problems will be addressed adequately using brief therapy models. The counselor and client must identify those circumstances when
additional sessions are necessary\ and do what is possible to meet the client¶s
needs appropriately. Using brief therapy procedures with certain client problems
may raise ethical questions of professional competence and abandonment
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Narrative therapy
As one of the strength-based therapies, narrative therapy’s philosophical basis
is social constructionism. This post-modern approach believes that independent, objective reality exists through subjective experiences, and the client's perception of reality is valid. This reality is based on the language and words clients use to represent their situation and circumstances in which people live. Consequently, their realities are socially constructed.
Narrative therapy believes that clients’ lives are stories in progress and these
stories can be told and explored from a variety of perspectives. Stories use words and language to give meaning to experiences and help determine feelings and attitudes. They are subjective and constructed by the individual living within a context made up of family, culture, race, ethnicity, gender orientation, etc
In narrative therapy, the client tells the often ‘problem-saturated’ story and the
therapist encourages other perspectives and interpretations. The story might
be ‘deconstructed’ and new meanings and variations may be substituted. After
deconstruction, the focus is on helping the client rewrite the story.
Some specific therapeutic techniques and interventions may be:
a. Questions and clarifications -- by the therapist to discover and
constrXct the stor\ of the client¶s e[perience.
b. Externalization and deconstruction -- with the focus that the person
is not the problem, the problem is the problem. Externalizing
the problem can help deconstruct it.
c. Re-authoring -- helping the client find a more appropriate alternative
story. By finding strengths and exceptions, help the client write a
new story more consistent with what they want their life to be like.
d. Documenting the evidence through writing of letters -- therapists
can consolidate gains and advance therapy by writing letters to
the client between sessions. These have been found to be
powerful adjuncts to the sessions.
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Carl Jung
Jung believed in the collective unconscious. responses that humans experience.
The operant for the collective unconscious is the archetype. An archetype is a
response pattern occurring universally in the human experience and is
characterized by an emotional charge to the existential issues of identity,
meaning, and purpose.
Examples of archetypes are: anima and animus (female and male traits).
Goals of Jungian therapy include: transformation of self including gaining
knowledge of self; recognition and integration of self.
Therapy is viewed as a healing process.
Jung introduced concepts of introversion and extraversion.The collective unconscious is determined by the evolutionary development of the human species and it contains brain patterns for the most intense emotional
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Alfred Adler
Two important concepts are birth order and family constellation.
Techniques of counseling: counselor is egalitarian with client²it¶s a
collaborative effort. Adler views neuroses as a failure in learning which
results in distorted perceptions.
Stress is on client responsibility in counseling.
Counseling examines family constellations, dreams, early memories.
Asking 'The Question': "What would be different if you were well?" focuses the
counseling process.
Birth order implications: Children in the same family have different
psychological environments because of the difference in birth order.
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Aaron Beck
Developed a system of psychotherapy called cognitive therapy. Identified
automatic thoughts in client. These were similar to the preconscious. There is an internal communication system. In depressed people, this internal
communication was negatively focused resulting in low self-esteem, self-blame
and negative interpretations of experiences.
The person experiences a negative cognitive shift.
The cause of depression may be in any combination of biological, genetic, stress
or personality factors. Follow-up studies suggest there is a greater stability of
results and fewer relapses with cognitive therapy than anti-depressant drugs.
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Theories and multicultural issues
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Early super
His early conception of career deYelopment (1950¶s and 1960¶s)
included vocational development stages and vocational development tasks.
The vocational development stages are:
a. Growth (birth to 14-15). Development of capacity, interests and
self-concept.
b. Exploratory (15-24). Tentative choices made.
c. Establishment (25-44). Trial (in work situations) and stabilize.
d. Maintenance (45-64). Continual adjustment process.
e. Decline (65+). Preretirement, work output issues and retirement.
He later changed decline to disengagement.
According to Super, self-concept was implemented in choice of career.
He identified the concept of career maturity and later renamed it career
adaptability to make it less age-related.
Super also identified five vocational development tasks. These are:
a. Crystallization (ages 14-18)²formulating a general vocational
goal through awareness.
b. Specification (18-21)²moving from a tentative to a specific
vocational choice.
c. Implementation (21-24)²completing training and entering
employment.
d. Stabilization (24-35)²confirming a preferred choice by
performing the job
Consolidation (35+)²becoming established in a career;
advancing; achieving status.
The ages of Super’s stages and tasks no longer apply because some people
have gaps in their employment (careers) and recycle. This model was initially
focused primarily on white, middle-class, college-educated males.
Super recognized that we can repeat or recycle through these developmental
tasks.
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Holland
types
provide the energy and motivation to do certain things, learn certain skills,
associate with particular people, and avoid other skills as well as people.
To Holland, career choice is an expression of personality. We choose a career
based on the stereotypes we hold about different jobs or careers.
Holland identified six modal personal orientations (personality types) which
developed based on genetic factors, environment, and parental influences.
Holland¶s six styles or types are:
Realistic: aggressive; prefers explicit tasks requiring physical
manipulation; has poor interpersonal skills.
Examples: mechanic, technician.
Investigative: intellectual; prefers systematic, creative investigation
activities; has poor persuasive and social skills.
Examples: chemist, computer programmer.
Artistic: imaginative; prefers self-expression via physical, verbal or other
materials; dislikes systematic and ordered activities.
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Examples: artist, editor.
Social: social; prefers activities that inform, develop, or enlighten others;
dislikes activities involving tools or machines.
Examples: teacher, counselor.
Enterprising: extroverted; prefers leadership and persuasive roles;
dislikes abstract, cautious activities.
Examples: manager, sales personnel.
Conventional: practical; prefers ordered, structured activities; dislikes
ambiguous and unsystematized tasks.
Examples: file clerk, cost accountant
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Linda Gottfredson (developmental)
This career development theory is called ‘Circumscription and
Compromise’ and focuses on the vocational development processes
experienced by children. Vocational self-concept is central and influences
occupational selection.
Individuals circumscribe (narrow down occupations) and compromise (opt out
of unavailable or inappropriate occupations) as they develop.
Individual development progresses through the following four stages:
a. Orientation to size and power (age 3-5)
Children have neither; they are concrete thinkers and begin to
understand what it means to be an adult. Even as young as age 3 they
can name occupations they would like to do.
b. Orientation to sex roles (6-8)
Children learn that adults have different roles, and occupations are
sex-typed. Even today, most occupations are performed primarily by
one sex or the other.
c. Orientation to social valuation (9-13)
There is greater awareness of values held by peers, family and
community; occupations vary greatly in social value ± desirability.
d. Orientation to internal unique self (14+)
In occupational selection as a teenager or adult, internal factors such as
aspirations, values, and interests are critical.
Young children (ages 6-8, and even younger according to some research) tend tchoose occupations which fit their gender. Preadolescents tend to choose
occupations which have social values consistent with their perceived social
class. They may also rule out occupations which are inappropriate because of a
mismatch in ability, intelligence level or cultural factors. In the teenage years
and later, self-awareness of personal characteristics helps determine which
occupation is selected.
Individuals develop a cognitive map of occupations based on sex-type, social
value (prestige), and field of work (interest area). A zone of acceptable
alternatives is identified and occupations within this range are consistent with the
indiYidXal¶s self-concept
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Trait and Factor (career counseling approach
This approach is sometimes called an actuarial or matching approach.
The trait-factor approach was developed by Frank Parsons (Father of
Guidance).
Parsons wrote Choosing a Vocation which was published in 1909 the year
after he died.
Trait-factor means you:
a. study the individual (trait)
b. survey occupations (factors)
c. match the person with an occupation (using true reasoning)
This approach stimulated the development of assessment techniques (tests and
inventories) and occupational information gathering.
E. G. Williamson (1930¶s) refined the µtrait-factor¶ approach. To him, the career counseling approach involved six steps: analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis,
counseling, and follow-up.
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John Krumboltz (learning theory of career counseling -- LTCC)
Krumboltz used Bandura’s social learning theory to identify the principal
concepts for this theory of career development and career counseling.
Reinforcement theory, cognitive information processing, and classical
behaviorism are important concepts.
Career development and career decision making involve the following:
a. genetic endowments and special abilities
This includes inherited qualities which may set limits on career
opportunities.
b. environmental conditions and events
Events and circumstances influence skill development, activities,
and career preferences. Natural resources, economic conditions,
and legislation may be involved.
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c. instrumental and associative learning experiences
This is learning through reactions to consequences, results of
actions, and through reactions to others. Reinforcement and nonreinforcement of behaviors and skills are important. Associative
learning experiences come from associations learned through
obserYations and Zritten materials. The\ inflXence an indiYidXal¶s
perceptions.
d. task approach skills (problem-solving skills, work habits, etc.)
Skills acquired such as problem-solving, work habits, mental sets,
and emotional and cognitive responses.
Learning experiences over the lifetime influence career choice. An individual's
generalizations and beliefs may be problematic and may need to be challenged by
the career counselor. New beliefs and courses of action may need to be learned
and substituted. The Career Beliefs Inventory of Krumboltz may be used to
identify clients’ mental barriers preventing them from taking action.
Unplanned and chance events will influence an indiYidXals¶ career
development, and such occurrences should be expected and taken advantage of.
Krumboltz refers to these events as ‘planned happenstance.’
