Core Topic 2

Question 1

Why was the League opposed in the U.S and how did Wilson react?(4)

Answer 1

The League supported the Treaty of Versailles which was disliked by Americans. Joining the League may have lead to sending US soldiers to settle foreign conflict.
Sanctions imposed by the League might damage American trade. The League was feared to be dominated by Britain and France, some Americans were anti-empires.
The US never ended up joining the League and even after Wilson took it to Congress again in March 1920 it was defeated 49-35 when it needed a 2/3 majority.
Warren Harding campaigned for America to be isolationist and won - President for 1921 -1923.

Question 2

What were the key features and aims of the League Of Nations?(4)

Answer 2

Its four main aims can be simplified to:
Discourage aggression Encourage co-operation
Encourage disarmament Improve living and working conditions.
It was based in Geneva, Switzerland. It had 42 countries upon its inception and 59 members from September 1934.
To outline its structure; the Secretariat was the centre, branching off this was the Assembly, the Council, Mandates and many different sections. The ILO and the PCIJ were separate to the Secretariat but overlapped through some sections.

Question 3

What was the ILO and how was it successful?(2)

Answer 3

The International Labour Organisation collected statistics about working conditions and information on how to improve them. It exists in the modern day UN.
It was successful in banning poisonous white lead from paint and in limiting the hours that small children were allowed to work.
However, when it introduced a resolution for a maximum 48-hour working week and eight-hour day for 16 year olds many members refused this and it had no method of enforcing this policy.

Question 4

What was job of the Permanent Court of International Justice?(2)

Answer 4

The Permanent Court of International Justice was based at the Hague and was key in settling border but also general disputes. It consisted of 11 judges and 4 deputy judges, recommended by member states.
Upon request it would give a ruling on a border dispute between countries, but it had no method of enforcing this ruling.

Question 5

What was the job of the Secretariat?(2)

Answer 5

Secretariat contained many different sections ranging from Transit and Communication, to Economics and Finance.
The staff of the League’s secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and Assembly, publishing reports of the meetings; effectively acting as the civil service for the League.
However it was often too small to handle all of the League’s administrative affairs; its staff jumped from 75 to 400 from 1924-25.

Question 6

What was the job of the Assembly?(2)

Answer 6

The Assembly consisted of up to 3 representatives of each state with one vote. It met in Geneva the first Monday of September annually(according to Rules of Procedure of the Assembly adopted at Its Eleventh Meeting).
It was the only way to: admit new members to the League, elect non-permanent members to the Council, and elect judges of the Permanent Court.
It could also discuss and propose changes to the Covenant, also discuss any issue pertaining to the Covenant or to international peace more generally - in doing so provide suggestions to the Council. The Assembly also controlled the budget.

Question 7

What was the job of the Council?(4)

Answer 7

It consisted of Britain, France, Italy and Japan as permanent members and four nonpermanent members that were elected for three year periods. From 1926-33 Germany was the fifth member, then after Germany and Japan’s withdrawal in 1933, the Soviet Union became the fourth member from 1934-37.
The number of nonpermanent members increased from six(1922) to nine(1926) to ten(1933) to eleven(1936). Each of the permanent members had a veto which meant one permanent member could stop the Council acting even if all other members agreed.
After negotiations failed, the Council would follow this route of power display; Moral condemnation - they state which country is the aggressor and tell it to stop. Economic and financial sanctions - members of the League refuse to trade with the aggressor. Military force - armed forces of member countries used against an aggressor.

Question 8

What were Britain and France’s other priorities than the LoN?(2)

Answer 8

Britain was more interested in rebuilding British trade and looking after the British empire than being an international police force.
France meanwhile were still concerned about Germany. France was worried that without an army of its own, the LoN would be too weak to protect France against Germany.

Question 9

What did the League do about the Polish-Lithuanian dispute?(4)

Answer 9

There was a conflict going on between Poland and Lithuania in 1920, On the 11th October a Lithuanian envoy asked the LoN to intervene in the conflict.
On October 14th, Léon Bourgeois(who was head of the League council) issued a note condemning the action and asking Polish units to retreat.
However, there was great arguing which ended in a plebiscite being decided, which was never held.
The aftermath of poor League action meant that Lithuania broke off diplomatic relations with Poland completely and refused to recognise the area of Vilnius(Which used to be in Lithuania) even in De Facto control by Poland.

Question 10

What did the League do about the Aaland Isles dispute?(2)

Answer 10

In 1921, traditionally Finish islands had residents that desired to be governed by Sweden. Neither Finland nor Sweden could come to a decision as to who owned the islands and hence they appealed to the League.
The League stated that the Islands should remain in Finish control but that no weapons should ever be kept there. Both countries accepted the decision.

Question 11

What did the League do about the Upper Silesian settlement dispute between Germany and Poland?(2)

Answer 11

1921 - Upper Silesia contained a valuable industrial area, and was located on the border between Germany and Poland. Originally granted to Poland by the draft Treaty of Versailles; Germans protested and a plebiscite was agreed to be held.
The overall results of the vote suggested it should be returned to Germany, but some areas had a clear majority for Poland. Therefore, the League suggested a partition, in response to riots, which was accepted by both countries.

Question 12

How did the Corfu Crisis of 1923 begin and what did the League do about it?(3)

Answer 12

The League had appointed Italian General Enrico Tellini to sort out the border dispute between Albania and Greece, but on the 27th August 1923 he and 4 others were killed while surveying the Greek area.
Mussolini blamed the Greek Government and on the 31st August Mussolini bombarded and occupied Corfu. 16 civilians were killed, 30 injured.
Greece appealed to the League under Articles 12 and 15 of the Covenant. The Council was already in session and by the 7th September 1923 the League made the decision condemning Mussolini’s actions, suggesting Greece also pay some compensation.

Question 13

How did Mussolini react to the League’s original decision over Corfu and what did the League do about it?(3)

Answer 13

Mussolini insisted the dispute was dealt with by the Conference of Ambassadors and threatened to leave the League. Britain was prepared to refer the matter to the League but France opposed this because it would provide a precedent for the League to become involved in the Ruhr incident.
Hence with lack of French support, the Conference of Ambassadors made the final decision ordering the Greeks to apologise, pay 50 million lire to Italy as well as the highest Greek military authority to apologise to British, French and Italian representatives at Athens.
The decision was accepted by Greece on the 8th September and Italy on the 10th but Mussolini didn’t withdraw from Corfu until the 27th.

Question 14

What was the Geneva Protocol for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes?(3)

Answer 14

Put forward in 1924 the Protocol envisaged wide-ranging regulations to bring about general disarmament, effective international security and the compulsory arbitration of disputes. These were due to be discussed in a disarming conference the following year.
However, while it gained preliminary ratification by all 47 member states in October 1924; it was not ratified by Great Britain the following year under the newly elected government of Stanley Baldwin - hence it never materialised.
Not to be confused with the the Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare.

Question 15

What did the League do when Bulgaria appealed to the League in 1925?(4)

Answer 15

After an incident on the border, Greece issued an ultimatum to Bulgaria of 48 hours demanding an official apology, and two million French francs as compensation for the families of the victims.
Greek Soldiers were also sent on the 22nd October to occupy the town of Petrich.
The League acted quickly calling a meeting in Paris, demanding both sides to stand down and Greek forces to withdraw from Bulgaria. Greece had to pay £45,000 in compensation, and Bulgaria compensated the victim’s family.

Question 16

How was the League of Nations effective through the Refugees Committee?(2)

Answer 16

It is estimated that in the first few years after the war, about 400,000 prisoners were returned to their homes by the League.
Furthermore in the refugee crisis in Turkey 1922(because of war) the League acted quickly to stamp out cholera, smallpox and dysentery in the camps.

Question 17

How was the League of Nations effective through the Health Committee?(3)

Answer 17

The Health Committee sponsored research into different infectious diseases at institutes in Singapore, London and Denmark.
These helped develop vaccines for Leprosy and Malaria.
Furthermore the Health Committee was so successful its work continues today as the WHO.

Question 18

How was the League of Nations effective through the Slavery Committee?(2)

Answer 18

It helped free 200,000 slaves in British-owned Sierra Leone.
It organised raids against slave owners and traders In Burma, and it brought the death rate among the African workers building the railway in Tanganyika down from 50 to 4%.

Question 19

What was the Washington Naval Conference?(4)

Answer 19

Washington Conference - 1921-22. It was split into three Treaty’s:
The Five Power Treaty, signed by US, UK, Japan, France and Italy called for each to maintain a set ratio of warship tonnage which allowed US and UK 500, Japan 300, and France and Italy each 175(all thousand tons).
The Four Power Treaty, signed by US, UK, Japan and France called for each to consult with each other in the event of a future crisis in East Asia before taking action(replacing the Anglo-Japanese Treaty 1902).
The Nine Power Treaty, signed by US, UK, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal and China called to respect the territorial integrity of China

Question 20

What was the Rapallo Treaty?

Answer 20

1922 Soviet Union and Germany re-established diplomatic relations.

Question 21

What was the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan?(2)

Answer 21

Dawes Plan - Agreed September 1924, USA loaned out 800 million Marks. Germany only had to pay 1 billion Marks/ year for the first 5 years, 2.5 billion/ year after that.
Young Plan - Agreed January 1930, total amount of reparations were to be reduced by 20%; loans of 1924 were to be continued under control of J P Morgan.

Question 22

What were the Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg Briand Pact?(2)

Answer 22

Locarno Treaties - October 1925 Germany, France and Belgium accepted their post Versailles borders set out in the Treaty of Versailles.
Kellogg-Briand Pact - 1928, 62 countries including Germany new in the LoN sign an agreement to settling disputes between countries peacefully.

Question 23

How did the economic depression impact the League(3)

Answer 23

The Wall Street Crash in October 1929 caused US loans to dry up, causing unemployment, poverty and chaos in Germany. As a result Hitler was elected which was terrible for international peace - openly planning to invade Germany’s neighbours.
Internationalism massively shrunk as USA and Britain focused less of the League and more the economy.
Furthermore, one solution to unemployment was to rearm - causing tension.
Many countries also put tariffs on imports, but this meant their trading partners did the same; hence trade and co-operation was poor during the Depression.

Question 24

What happened in China after Chinese troops allegedly attacked part of the Manchurian railway, the Mukden incident?(3)

Answer 24

On September 18th 1931 an explosion destroyed a section of railway near Mukden. The Japanese blamed China hence invaded and occupied Manchuria.
The US pressured the League to enforce the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which China and Japan had signed - however the League dismissed this and the Lytton Committee instead published a report on 2 October 1932 that condemned Japan’s actions.
US Secretary of State Henry Stimson declared that Japan violated the Nine Power Treaty, and hence the US was no longer bound by the Four or Five Power Treaties respectively. This meant a potential new naval arms race.

Question 25

What was Japan’s response to the League’s decision?(2)

Answer 25

On 24 February 1933 the Lytton report was ratified by the League and so a motion to condemn Japan’s actions in Manchuria was raised. The Japanese delegate therefore walked out.
27 March Japan officially resigned from the League and a week later the Kwantung army invaded Jehol.

Question 26

What was the Disarmament Conference?(4)

Answer 26

In February 1932 the Conference began, by July 1932 there were resolutions to prohibit bombing of civilian populations, limit artillery size, limit tank tonnage and prohibit chemical warfare.
However, there was no tangible end product for any of these resolutions. Germany then proposed to all countries disarmament to its level, but this ‘equality’ was not achieved. Germany left.
In September Britain then agreed with Germany to some extent about equality; then in December an agreement was finally reached and by January 1933 Germany were back at the Conference.
However, Hitler came into power in February and by October after the conference had made no progress pulled Germany out of the League all together.

Question 27

When and where was the dispute between Abyssinian and Italian soldiers, what was the reaction from the League?(4)

Answer 27

In December 1934 at the Wal-Wal oasis, 80km inside Abyssinia, there was a dispute - 107 Ethiopians and 50 Italians and Somalis killed.
In January, Ethiopia appealed to the League but the response was inconclusive. Quickly French Minister of Foreign Affairs Pierre Laval and British Foreign Secretary Samual Hoare met and produced the Hoare-Laval Pact in secret on December 8th.
A day later British and French newspapers leaked the the details and Hoare and Laval were both soon sacked.
23rd February Mussolini began sending large number of troops to Ethiopia but it took until the 4th September for the League to exonerate both sides of any culpability, putting forward a plan giving Mussolini part of Abyssinia.

Question 28

What was Mussolini’s response to the League’s plan about Abyssinia?(3)

Answer 28

He rejected it, and on October 3rd 1935 launched a full scale invasion of Abyssinia using 300-500 tons of mustard gas attacking both military and civilian targets even though it was banned in the 1925 Geneva Protocol.
He exiled Haile Selassie on 2nd May and captured the capital Addis Ababa on the 5th May 1936. By 1940 Italy had complete control of three quarters of the country.
Haile Selassie pleaded in his 7 June 1936 address to the League of Nations; as a result China, New Zealand, Soviet Union, Spain, Mexico and the US did not recognise Italy’s occupation.

Question 29

How was the League ineffective in dealing with the Abyssinian crisis?

Answer 29

The League imposed sanctions in November 1935 but these were largely ineffective because oil was not banned neither the Suez Canal closed(controlled by Britain).
Canadian delegate to the League Alexander Riddel suggested adding steel and oil to sanctions, however as Canadian PM Mackenzie King relied on Mussolini supporters to win majority it did not materialise.

Question 30

How did Hitler take advantage of the Abyssinian crisis?(2)

Answer 30

On the 7th March Hitler marched his troops into the Rhineland, an act prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles.
Then in November 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis.

Question 31

What was the Stresa Pact?

Answer 31

1935 The Stresa Pact was an agreement which was a formal statement against German rearmament between Britain, France and Mussolini.