Core Concepts Of Health Flashcards
1
Q
What are the four models of health?
A
Biomedical
Biopsychosocial
Salutogenic
Alternative/Complementary Therapies
2
Q
Erich Fromm defines a Sane Society as:
A
The need for relatedness with others, the need for rootedness, transcendence, self identity and orientation.
3
Q
Which three factors contribute to Meikirchs model of health?
A
Environment, society and individual factors.
4
Q
What does Wendell Berry mean by ‘Health is Membership’?
A
Berry focuses on the importance of community- health is wholeness, a sense of belonging, community and having in common with others. Health is non-dualist and about interconnection with others within society.
5
Q
What does the world health organisation mean by social gradient?
A
The poorest of the poor around the world have the worst health outcomes. The lower an individuals socioeconomic status, the worse their health. There is a social gradient within health running from top to bottom meaning that health inequalities effect everyone.
6
Q
What does the world health organisation mean by health inequalities?
A
These are avoidable inequalities which exist between people. They arise from inequalities within and between societies. Socioeconomic conditions and the way in which they effect people’s lives determine the risk of developing illness/the actions taken to prevent illness/the treatment options and outcomes for when illness occurs.
7
Q
Wilkinson and Pickett wrote ‘The Spirit Level’- what does this report argue?
A
That inequality is the root cause for every social problem. (E.g. reduced life expectancy, child mortality rates, mental health problems, drug addiction).
8
Q
Roper, Logan and Tierney outline the twelve fundamental activities of daily living. These are:
A
- Breathing
- Eating and a Drinking
- Washing and dressing
- Sexual fulfilment
- Sleeping
- Death and dying
- Communication with others
- Maintaining a safe environment
- Controlling temperature
- Mobilisation
- Working and playing
- Elimination needs
9
Q
Roper, Logan and Tierney identify five factors which heavily influence the twelve activities of daily living. These are:
A
- Biological factors
- Psychological factors
- Sociocultural factors
- Environmental factors
- Politico-economic factors
10
Q
What does Wright Mills consider ‘sociological imagination’ to be?
A
The idea that the way that we live our lives is shaped by the historical period in which we live in. He recognises the close relationship which exists between history and our personal lives.
11
Q
Which six policy objectives were highlighted in the Marmot Report- ‘Fair Society, Healthy Lives’?
A
- Give every child the best start in lives
- Allow for all individuals to maximise their capabilities and take control over their lives
- Allow fair employment and good work for all
- Ensure a healthy standard of living for all
- Create healthy places and healthy communities
- Strengthen the role and impact of ill health prevention
12
Q
What are the key concepts of The Social Learning Theory- established by Bandura and Walters?
A
Children who observed role models behaving aggressively are likely to mimic those behaviours. Also considers the concept of moral disengagement- how individuals disassociate ethical principles in order to justify aggressive behaviour.
13
Q
What are the four key stages of Banduras ‘Moral Disengagement Concept’?
A
- Reconstructing conduct (the need to make good)
- Displacing responsibility
- Disregarding consequences
- Dehumanising victims
14
Q
What are the five categories within Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
A
- Basic physiological needs for survival
- Safety needs
- Love and belongingness needs
- Self esteem needs
- Self actualisation needs
15
Q
Which three concepts make up Carl Rogers theory of ‘Unconditional Positive Regard?’
A
Genuineness
Empathy
Respect
16
Q
What did Tudor Harts ‘inverse care law’ establish?
A
Outlines a clear relationship between healthcare and utilisation whereby those who are in desperate need of healthcare are the least likely to use it/have access to it. Conversely, those with the least need for healthcare services are the most likely to use it to maximal effect.
17
Q
Raphael and Mikkonen established 14 social determinants of health: what are they?
A
- Income and income distribution
- Education
- Unemployment and job security
- Employment and job conditions
- Early childhood experiences and development
- Food insecurities
- Housing
- Social exclusion
- Social safety network
- Health services
- Aboriginal status
- Gender
- Race
- Disability
18
Q
What does the World Health Organisation define as the social determinants of health?
A
The conditions in which people are Born, grow, live, work and age. These are shaped by the distribution of money, power and resources at global, national and local levels. The social determinants of health are mostly responsible for health inequalities. They are the unfair and avoidable differences in health status seen within and between countries.
19
Q
What is lifestyle drift?
A
The idea that despite the fact the health inequalities are solely due to poverty and deprivation within society, the interventions put in place by governments focus on individual material factors rather than addressing behaviours relating to issues existing on a macro level.
20
Q
What ten interventions did Micheal Marmot introduce in The Health Gap?
A
- Don’t smoke
- Eat a balanced and healthy diet
- Exercise regularly
- Drink alcohol in moderation
- Practice safe sex
- Protect yourself in the sun
- Take up cancer screening opportunities
- Follow the Highway Code
- Learn basic first aid
- Manage stress
21
Q
What are Graham Scramblers 7 health assets?
A
- Biological
- Psychological
- Social
- Cultural
- Spatial
- Symbolic
- Material
22
Q
Which of the 7 health assets does Scrambler consider to be the most important?
A
Material- I.e. income and material goods.
23
Q
How does the world health organisation define health?
A
As a state of complete mental, physical and social wellbeing. Not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
24
Q
What are Max Manfred Neef’s nine fundamental human needs? Why are they so important?
A
- Subsistance
- Protection
- Affection
- Leisure
- Understanding
- Participation
- Creation
- Freedom
- Identity
They are essential to flourish, be healthy and develop.
25
What are the four elements of Irwin Rosestoc’s health belief model?
1. Perceived vulnerability (the extent to which one believes they are at risk of developing a serious illness)
2. Perceived benefits vs perceived barriers (do the benefits of the actions outweigh the barriers)
3. Health values (does the individual value themselves and their health)
4. Cues to action (what prompts the individual to want to make a change)
26
What are the six key stages of Prochaska and Di Clemente’s stages of change theory?
1. Pre-contemplation - recognising positive reasons for change
2. Contemplation - exploring ways to achieve changes
3. Planning - how can the change be managed
4. Implementation - set start date and carry out activity
5. Relapse prevention - recognise how to deal with difficult situations
6. Termination - decide at which point the programme has been a success
27
What are Bandura’s three levels of readiness to change?
Level one- high levels of self efficacy and motivation. Positive change expectations. Little assistance required.
Level two- some self doubts regarding efficacy and benefits of the action. May give up if difficulties arise. Requires motivation, reassurance and some assistance.
Level three- health habits are seen to be beyond control of the individual. Sceptical and unmotivated to make health changes. Requires high levels of assistance, motivation and reassurance.
28
What are Carl Roger’s three key elements of the self?
Self image- how we see ourselves
Self esteem- what we value about ourselves
Self ideal- what we aspire to be
29
What is meant by self stereotyping?
People acknowledge positive or negative stereotypes directed at their group. They then change their behaviour and performance to fit with these stereotypes.
30
What is meant by Bandura’s concept of self efficacy?
An individuals belief in their own ability and capacity to organise and execute the course of action required to produce given attainments and make changes.
31
What does Martin Seligman mean by ‘learned helplessness’?
An individual state of depression caused by a perceived lack of control. Often resulting in negative thinking, behaviour and motivation.
32
What does Julian Rotter mean by the internal and external locus of control?
Internal- individuals believe that they are responsible for themselves and the things that happen to them.
External- individuals believe that external factors such as luck, fate and chance are responsible for the things that happen to them, they have no control.
33
Wallston and Wallston discuss three concepts surrounding Locus of Control linked directly to health. What are they?
Internal- a belief in ones ability and responsibility to remain healthy.
External- a belief in luck, chance and fate- illness is due to poor luck and is out of individual control.
Powerful others- it is the responsibility of healthcare professionals to diagnose, treat and cure illnesses.
34
What does Tornstam mean by gerotrancendance?
Gerotrancendance suggests that growing old can be seen as a positive movement towards maturity and increased levels of wisdom and knowledge. A counter view to the disengagement theory.
35
How did the world health organisation define Health Promotion in the Ottawa Charter in 1986?
As the process of enabling people to have increased control over the ability to improve their own health.
36
What are the three elements of Tannahills Health Promotion Model?
1. Prevention
2. Health education
3. Health protection
37
How does Acheson define Public Health?
As the ‘science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts of society’.
38
Define demography.
A framework for studying different aspects of the population.
39
Define empowerment.
A process whereby people are able to gain or seize power over decisions and resources that influence their lives.
40
What is meant by the social gradient within health?
The poorest of the poor around the world have the worst health. The lower an individuals socioeconomic position; statistically speaking the worse their health. There is a social gradient within health which runs from top to bottom. Health inequity effects everyone.
41
What did the WHO 2008 report ‘Closing the gap in a generation’ recognise?
If those enjoying better, disability free lives are doing so due to material assets, then we should act to improve the material assets of those who die younger and suffer poor health for longer.
42
Behavioural approaches are concerned with:
Behaviour which can be directly observed. Acknowledge the concepts of classical and operant conditioning.
Classical: stimuli associated with something that already has significance e.g. Pavlovs doggos
Operant: people repeat behaviours if they receive positive outcomes e.g. Skinners rats
43
Cognitive approaches are concerned with:
Internal thought processes. Humans are effective information processors. Errors can be made during thought processing which can explain individual differences in behaviour.
44
Biological approaches are concerned with:
The physical nature of behaviour and psychological processes. We are motivated purely by biological needs. Our behaviour is as a result of the chemical composition within our brains.
45
Psychodynamic approaches are concerned with:
The impact of early childhood experiences and unconscious motives on our behaviour. Irrational forces are strong and individuals are often driven by sexual and aggressive impulses. We have three ego states, Adult, child and parent which unconsciously drive our emotional responses and behaviours.
46
What does Cooley mean by the looking glass self?
Individuals base their opinions of themselves on the perceptions of others. We imagine how we must appear to others. We imagine how others must judge us. We base our opinions of ourselves on the judgements of others.
47
What are the six key features of the sociobehavioral model of health?
1. The need for care
2. Predisposing factors (social factors that shape care)
3. Enabling factors (need to act on a desire to receive care)
4. Recognising issues as problems
5. Developing coping methods
6. Develop an understanding of health that supports health behaviour
48
What is meant by cognitive bias?
Bias which arises from various processes which are difficult to distinguish. Including information processing shortcuts, distortions in information processing, brain limited capacity, emotional and moral motivations and social influences.
49
What’s Ajzens ‘theory of planned behaviour’
Recognised that individuals do not necessarily have control over their own behaviour. The amount of behavioural control that individuals perceive they have is an important element. Attitude, subjective norms control and shape individual behaviours.
50
What is the theory of reasoned action?
Focuses on individuals motivations and assessments of both risks and desires. Individuals rate how current and alternative actions can reduce their health problems. Behavioural intentions depend on an individuals attitude towards that behaviour and social norms. If a person intends to do a behaviour, it is likely that they will do it.
51
What is the health belief model?
Examines the meaning of predisposing characteristics and analyses how an individuals specific health beliefs and preferences as well as experiences affect decisions to seek care and adopt health behaviours.
52
What does Goffman state about stigma?
He writes that a stigmatised person is discounted from our minds as a whole ‘normal’ person to a discounted tainted one.
53
Why does Kitty Jones state that the poor deserve to be poor?
Because they have earned their place within society. It is a rejection of their lack of qualities, poor character and level of abilities. Opposite to Graham Scramblers beliefs.
54
What are the general principles outlined in the Marmot report?
The social gradient is responsible for inequalities in health. We should aim to reduce the social gradient to maximise health outcomes within society.
55
What is meant by proportional universalism as discussed within the Marmot report?
In order to reduce health inequalities, actions must be universal with a scale and intensity which is proportionate to the level of disadvantage.
56
According to Scrambler, at which point in life do weak assets negatively effect an individual?
A weak flow of assets across the board at critical life periods (e.g. childhood) have detrimental health effects. It then becomes hard for the individual to improve assets in the future.
57
What does Roper mean by the independance-dependence continuum in relation to the activities of daily living?
Patients undertake the activities of daily living in varying levels of dependency. From fully independent to fully dependant.
58
What is meant by anchoring or focalism?
The tendency to focus too heavily or anchor on one piece of information when making decisions.
59
What is Cummings and Henry’s disengagement theory?
The older a person becomes, the more disengaged and withdrawn from society they become.
60
What is the social psychology approach?
Focuses on the ways individuals interact with one another. Combines cognitive and behavioural theories.
61
What is the difference between ‘disease’ and ‘illness’?
Illness is the subjective state- the behavioural response which may be noticed by other people.
Disease is the pathological condition which can be identified by medical interventions.
62
What does ‘the causes of the causes’ apply to?
The social determinants of health.
63
Barton and Grant established the ‘health map’ which looked closely at the relationship between which three environmental factors?
Physical, social and economical environmental factors.
64
Bronfenbrenner sought to develop an approach which looked at the wider determinants of health. What are the six environmental systems discussed within his approach?
```
Chronosystem
Macrosystem
Exosystem
Mesosystem
Microsystem
Individual
```
65
What are the New Economics Foundation’s ‘5 ways to wellbeing’?
1. Connect
2. Be active
3. Take notice
4. Keep learning
5. Give
66
Erich Fromm discussed the concept of a Sane Society. Which 5 ‘essences’ are so essential to man in order to function effectively within society?
1. The need for rootedness
2. The need for transcendence
3. The need for identity
4. The need for relatedness
5. The need for orientation
67
Give three features of the biomedical approach to healthcare:
Health is seen as the ‘absence of Disease’
Health services are geared towards the sick and the disabled
High value is placed on knowledge, research and quantitative methodology
The basis for our NHS
68
Give three features of the biopsychosocial model of healthcare?
Recognises that poor health cannot be treated in isolation from the social and cultural environment.
Takes into account the circumstances of service users
Considers issues such as access to health services and inequalities within healthcare.
69
Give three features of the salutogenic model of healthcare:
Focuses on why and how people stay well.
Seeks to understand the links between stressors, coping with stressors and health outcomes.
Questions why some people stay healthy despite stressors within their lifestyles.
70
Who was the founder of the Salutogenic model?
Antonovsky
71
Which 3 factors make up coherence as described by Antonovsky within his salutogenic model of health?
Comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness.
72
Why does Antonovsky consider the sense of coherence to be universal?
Because it cuts across divisions of gender, social class, religion and culture.
73
Give four common beliefs underpinning complementary and alternative theories behind health:
Self healing is paramount
Individuals should work with symptoms of ill health, not against them
Recognises individual differences
Recognises the links between all living creatures and their environments
74
Give 4 definitions of care as outlined by the ‘essence of care’ and ‘compassion in practice’ documents:
Care is an activity which can be carried out by one human for another
Care is about being present with another person
Care is about seeing others as individuals
Care is holistic and can therefore be linked closely to the biopsychosocial model of health.
75
Which document was written by Graham Scrambler?
The Greedy Bastards Hypothesis
76
Give four features outlines by Scrambler with relation to his ‘asset’ theory:
Material assets are considered to be the most important and influential
Asset flows tend to vary together
Negative asset flows at crucial junctions within life can have a detrimental effect on future outcomes for individuals
Subjective perspectives of asset flows are considered to be more important that objective perspectives
77
Discuss the Neoliberal Social Imaginary:
The Neoliberal Social Imaginary individualises health and social problems. Individuals are blamed for their own health issues. Poor choices result in poor outcomes- if individuals make better choices their health would improve. Individuals are seen as consumers and health is a market which is profitable. The NHS should be a privatised system- allowing individuals to choose between health service providers; this way, poor providers of healthcare services will be filtered out.
78
What does the Neoliberalist view consider to be the defining characteristic of human relations?
Competition
79
Give 4 examples of Neoliberalism’s ritual responses to poverty?
Blame the individual.
Deny political responsibility for health.
Divide the population.
Privilege the wealthy.
80
What is the opposing view to Neoliberalism and who was it initiated by?
Scramblers ‘Greedy Bastards Hypothesis’ which argues that poverty is a direct result of the capitalist class and that poor health outcomes arise due to structural socioeconomic conditions which Neoliberal governments encourage.
81
What does the Gini initiative recognise:
That whilst income inequality is not actually becoming any greater (or worse) inequality indicators such as mental health are.
82
What does Wendell Berry consider to be a flaw with our education system?
Individuals are not being educated for healthy lifestyles. Instead, education focuses on preparing individuals for the job market.
83
What does Wendell Berry state about our understanding of health?
He believes that our understanding of health as a concept is too reductionist- it is reduced to thinking about physiological systems as separate entities from other human beings and the physical environment in which we exist. People consider themselves as ‘healthy’ yet live in broken families within destructive ecosystems.
84
Wendell Berry explicitly argues against ‘dualism’. What does ‘dualism’ mean?
Dualism is the philosophical concept which separates mind from body, the physical from spiritual, the human from non human, the material from the non material. Dualism leads to egocentricity- putting ‘man’ at the centre of all our thinking as a separate entity from nature and the environment.
85
What is meant by the ‘Liberal Human Self’ and the ‘Sovereign Individual’?
A key aspect of the liberal human self is the ‘Sovereign Individual’ which suggests that as individuals we have our own beings and are separate from society as a whole. Language is nothing but the expression of our thoughts and feelings and does not produce thoughts- it is merely an outcome of the thought which we have as individuals. Society is therefore external to the liberal human self.
86
Critical reflexivity focuses on 3 key issues which are:
Existential: thinking about who you are as an individual and who you want to become as an individual.
Relational: recognising how you as an individual relate to the world around you.
Praxis: the need to engage in self conscious and ethical action based upon critical questioning of past and future.
87
Who came up with structure and agency.
Giddens
88
What are the 5 types of capital in relation to sociology in healthcare?
1. Monetary
2. Symbolic
3. Social
4. Cultural
5. Physical
89
What do RED, SID, MUD stand for?
```
RED- redistribution discourse- prime concern is poverty
MUD- moral underclass discourse- prime concern is the excluded
SID- social integration discourse- prime concern is on paid work
```
90
Which three elements make up the transactional analysis theory as a part of the psychodynamic approach?
Parent
Adult
Child
91
Who came up with the ‘sick role’ and what does this mean?
Parsons. Sick individuals relate to the social setting in which they find themselves.
