Core

Question 1

Pompeii: Streetscape and plan.

Answer 1

Layout of roads and building reflect Greek influence through regular geometric grid.
-> which Fiordelli recognised and organised into insula (block) and organised into regio (regions).

Used of lactus (water fountains) on every street corner

Streets lead to four main gates, one being the Hercualneum gate which leads to the Street of the Dead.

Pompeii: Street of Abduence (Via dell’Abbondanza) + had steeping stones and 17 wheel ruts.

Question 2

Herculanuem: Streetscape and plan.

Do i need more?

Answer 2

• Evidence of storm drainage in which connected to an in-build latrine system, therefore no stepping stones.
• Main streets are Demumas maximus and Demumas interior
• Two story town.

Question 3

Economy: Forum - Regio 7
Public building

Answer 3

Herculaneum forum hasn’t been unearthed

Political: Electoral graffiti (progammata) found -> “Aediles mustatelli”
-> Comminturn located in the forum.

Administrate: basilica (law courts)
-> the center of courts and economic activity.

Religion: Temple of Capitoline Triad
-> Praised Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, however Minerva was the goddess of economics.

Economic: Mensa Ponderaria (Weighing tables) and Macelumn (large fish and meat market)
-> Fish bones found underneath symbolising prosperous fishing industry.

Question 4

The Economy: Trade

Answer 4

Economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum were relativilty small.

Pompeii:
Pliny the Elder highlights garum as a major export in Pompeii.
-> Garum found in Spain
-> Garum mosiac

Wine production and export were significant:
-> Bacchus mosiac - depicitng wine vines on MT Versuvius
-> Wine found in Kos (Asia minor)

17 wine ruts found in Pompeii symbolising it as a hub for trade in the mediterterian.
-> With Egyptian and Greek influence evident Emeralds jewelry sourced from Egypt found at Pompeii.

Herculaneum:
Focused on the local trade -> wine and grain sourced from Campanian.

Question 5

The Economy: Commerce

Answer 5

Forum:
Set of Mensa ponderaria (measuring tables) found at both Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Large, central fish and meat market (macellum), symbolinsed commerce over fishing.

20 found in Pompeii mostly found in the Via dell’Abbondanza
-> Mosics of menu, depicitng exotic aniamls such as Giraffes.

Private homes contibuted to commerce with Andrew Wallace-Hadrill highlighting houses 2 and 3 included taberna.
-> symbolises private trade of items such as jewlery, wine and grain
-> A taberna found outside of the house of the Tragic Poet.

Question 6

The Economy: industrial/occupations

Answer 6

Fishing:
* Oxford University with Andrew Wallace-Hadrill found marine marine shell fragments in latrine pits at Herculanum
* Fish Mosaic from the House of Faun: showing types of fish i.e Octopus and other local fish.
* Boat sheds at Herculaneum

Garum:
* Fresco of Garum in Scarus’s house in Pompeii.
* Gaurm from Pompeii found in Spain.

Wine production and export were significant:
* Bacchus mosiac - depicitng wine vines on MT Versuvius
* Wine found in Kos (Asia minor)

Prostitutes: 25 brothels found in Pompeii

Question 7

Social structure: Men (Ingenius)

Answer 7

Men who were free born were of two stratas:
* Senatorial elite - hoilday homes and villas most evident in Herculanuem
-> Villa of Papyri belonged to father in law of Julius Ceasar.
* Ordinary citizens - majoirty of artisians and traders.

Rights:
* Had the right to run and vote in elections
-> although only the wealthy could hold public positions due to system of patronage.
* Had full legal rights i.e owning land

Evidience: biased towards the elite
* System of patroange: very wealthy employing euergetism - “I beg you to elect Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He brings good bread.”
* Honorary statues are to create a glorius image of themselves.
-> Marcus Holconius Rufus dedicated a staute to himself.

Question 8

Social structure: Women

Answer 8

Limitation:
* Irrespective of class, they were not citizens and had no political rights (could not vote)
-> However, 15% of programmata written by women.
* Not allowed to lend money according to Herculaenum tablet

Rights:
Religous positions:
* Eumachia was a public priestess of Venus in Pompeii and matron of imperial cult.

Women could hold praedia (estate):
* “This wall is the private and perpetual property of Julia.”
-> Front of her was converted to tabernae

Played an econmic role:
* Eumachia held largest tomb in Pompeii necropolis (cementary), built during her lifetime symbolised wealth
* Matron of the fullers, dontating to build Collegium of the fullonnes leading to erection of statue of Euchmachia in the forum.

Freed women engaged in small bussiness, such as traders and artisans.

Lower class women worked as household servants or prostitutes, evident with 26 lupanaria (brothels) in Pompeii
-> No lupanaria have been unearthed in Herculanaum.

Question 9

Social structures: Freedmen (liberti)

Answer 9

Former slaves who had been manumitted (released from slavery).

Couldn’t run for office but could gain social statues through donating or by joining a cult.
-> However, Freedmen rebuilt temple of Isis after 62AD earthquake in his sons name in order to promote his son political future (social mobility).

Role in economy:
* Many became prosperous and influential
-> The Vetti brothers villa was constructed through wine industry.
* Nearly half of all artisits were freedmen, with freedmen also being traders and artisits
-> Evidence of some being doctors.

Freedmen often embraced former masters
* Marcus Nonius Balbus former slaves embraced his last name, and would constuct a statue of him in Herculanuem.

Question 10

Social structure: Slaves

Answer 10

Approx 40% of population in Pompeii and Herculaneum were slaves.

Couldn’t vote but had legal rights:
-> tablet highlighting slaves in basilica over child citizenship.

Slaves did recieve gifts from their masters:
-> Golden snake bracelet with inscription “from master to slave girl”.

Wide variety of Occupations:
Majority of slaves were uneducated but some were educated.
-> Served as cutters (Cina mosaic)
-> Serced as accountants (wax tables of slave transfering funds)
-> Served as tutors and doctors, with one being the doctor of the Emperor.

Question 11

Political: Magistrates:

Answer 11

Accommodated in buildings at the southern end of the forum

Quattuorviri (4 magistrates) requirments:
* Must be a freeborn male citizen.
* Elected by the ordo decuriones.
-> Used system of patronage to gather votes evident with 1,500 prommaganta found in Pompeii.

Two Dunmirir: (co-mayors)
* Served for one year
* Presided over ordo decurionum.
* Oversaw justice in the basilica.
* Collected finds
* Organised the lecto (census)

Two Aedile:
* Served for one year.
* Maintained upkeep of buildings and public order.
* Sponsored events for the public
-> Aedile created graffiti promoting upcoming ludi (apolo games)

Question 12

Political: Ordo decurionum

Answer 12

Comprised of 80-100 leaders of the community

Requirments to be appointed:
* Wealthy
* Freeborn citizen
* Aged over 25
* Couldn’t be an actors and innkeepers

Political role:
* Settled community debts - from their private funds
* Dealt with city finance, relgious matter and public bussiness
* Quattuovirir were selected from this groups, stepping stone in Roman politcal system.

Priviliges:
* Once voted in you were a life member.
* Eligiable to wear purple-edged toga
* Reserved seats at public performances at theatres and amphitheatre.

Question 13

Political: Comitium (People’s Assembly)

Answer 13

Council building is located in the forum.

Comprised of all eligible male citizens aged over 25.

Voted on all proposals made by the ordo decurionum.

Elected the duumviri and aediles annually (Each Spring) through a ballot system.
-> reason for the development of a system of patronage, evident in inscriptions of maginstrates “giving good bread”.

Question 14

Everyday: Housing

Answer 14

Domus had an atrium featuring impluvian & Compluvian -> the more peristyles = the weather the family.

Two types of Villas: Urban villa & Villa Rustica demonstrate the agricultural roots of the region.
- VILLA of Pisanella: Villa Rustica
A stable & oil press
- VILLA of Papyri: Urban Villa
87 statues

Wealthy homes had multiple peristyles -> as they needed more natural ‘air conditioning’.

Andrew Wallace-Hadrill:
1. one or two room housing (working class)
2. two to seven room - included Taberna
3. Eight to thirteen rooms - average Pompeii resident - includes taberna
4. Familia - largest and has slave quarters.

Question 15

Everyday housing: terminology

Answer 15

Taberna - (small workshop, looking out to the street)

Domus - (private residence for single family)

Atrium - (public center of the house)

Impluvian - (Large pool in the Atrium floor, storing water)

Compluvian - (A hole in the roof which allows in light)

Peristyles - (Open air courtyard, hub of the home)

Familia - (Roman household that included slaves)

Urban Villa - (located near the town)
Villa Rustica - (working farmhouses)

Question 16

Everyday: Leisure activities (wide variety)

Answer 16

Palestra: (large open areas):
* Found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum and highlights Greek infleunce
* Activiites: Wrestling + Swimming pool

Two theaters & an oedon (small theatre):
Hosts dramas and pantomimes (audience joining in with sing a longs).
-> Epigrahical evidence and wall evidence highlighting touring pantomimes.

Amphitheater:
* Hosting gladiator games
-> 59 AD riot, resulted in gladiator games to be banned for 10 years by the Emporers decree accoriding to Tacticus.
* Hosting of ludi (Apolo games):
-> Consited of chariot racing and theatre performances, evident through aedile graffiti.

Gambling:
* Cockerel fight Mosaic found at the house of Faun

Brothels (lupanaria):
* Inscriptions of (male private parts) directing those to brothels

Other evidence:
* Bath houses - Forum and Suburb
* Thermopolia - 26 found in Pompeii

Question 17

Everyday: Dining & food

Answer 17

All citizens ate a balanced meal as citizens had access to large variety of foods via trade & commerce:
-> 81 carbonised bread found in Herculanum.
-> Fish bones found under Macelumn (forum).
-> Andrew Waldrill Hadrill excavation of latrine pits found pomegranata and grape pips.
-> Exotic foods such as Giraffe bone.

Cina consisted of three meals: gustatio, mensae Primae & mensae secundae:
* Bronze & silver utensils found symbolising people dining at home

Wealthy eat at home in triclinium:
* Larger houses having a seperate kitchen i.e House of the Vettii.
-> Triclinium evident in Cina mosiac.

The average citizen ate at Thermopolia:
* They ate of dolia jars (big clay jars).
-> 26 Thermopolia found at Pompeii, mostly on the street of Abudence.

Question 18

Everyday: Clothing (lack of surviving physical evidence)

Answer 18

Women and men would wear jewelry i.e signet rings and earrings
-> Women would wear make-up.
-> Goldern snake braclet found on slave girl.
Not married women would wear a tunica

WEALTHY:
* Men wore a toga or tunic
-> seen through statues
* Men would wear a signet ring
-> evident on waxed signed documents
* Married women would wear stola and palla
-> seen on statue of Eumachia

POOR:
* Wear a tunic made out of wool (locally made) or linin (imported from Egypt) with a belt.

Question 19

Everyday: Health

Answer 19

Health:
* Pompeii was well norished in general (was this estella lazar?)
* Average height of men were 170cm
* 10% suffered from arthritis, symbolising many lived to old age.

Illness:
* According to Estella Lazar. HFI was common in women with 11% suffering, a cause of menopause.
* Tooth decay evident in skeltons from Pompeii most likely due to basalt grindstone that created bread.
* Tuberculosis & malaria were common - affecting the wealthy more than poor due to abundance of natural water fountains.

Question 20

Everyday: Baths (themae)

Answer 20

An everyday activitiy as it consited of citizens daily routine for citizens (open midday - close at night)
-> Men and women would be seperated
-> Could have private paths - Julia felix bathhouse

Types of baths in Pompeii and Herculaneum:
Pompeii has four baths: Forum, Stabian, Central & Amphitheater (not excavated yet)
Herculaneum has two baths: Forum & Suburb

LAYOUT:
* Apodyterium - changing room
* Frigidarium - cold bath room
* Tepidarium - warm bath room
* Caldarium - hot bath room
-> Labrum found in caldarium which was a round marble cold basin.
* Palaestra - exercise area
* Laconium - sauna
* Hypocaust - under-floor heating room

Question 21

Everyday: Water supply and saintation

Answer 21

Water supply:
* Serinum aqueducts supplied Campania with water.
-> distributed to the insulas and supplied the citizens through the lactus.
* Impluvium would be used to collect rainwater
-> Found in villas such as the house of Menander.

Sewage:
* Herculaneum holds lead piping which went out towards the sea.
* Pompeii sewer system was incomplete before the 79AD eruption.
-> Used raised stepping stones due to lack of drainage system in Pompeii

Question 22

Relgion: Temples

Answer 22

No temples found in Herculaneum yet, but 10 temples have been excavated at Pompeiin such as temple of Apollo (Greek influence) or temple of Isis (Egyptain influnence)

Functions of temples:
* Held public rituals of worship including the sacrifices of animals .
* House images of gods and objects of worship.

All temples would hold a Cella (shrine) such as the temple of Capitolium triad located in the forum which praised:
1. Jupiter - King of the gods (Zeus).
2. Juno - Goddess of marriage and childbirth (Hera).
3. Minerva - Goddess of commerce and wisdom (Athena)

Question 23

Relgion: Foregin/Mystery cults

Answer 23

Imperial cult:
* Dedication to the Emperor, with its creation after the death of Octavion (the first emperor of Rome)
-> Facilitated social mobility through religion, especially for women resulting in Euchmachia to be a matron of the cult, in order to gain social status.

Cult of Dionysus / bacchus: Greek infleunce
* Fresco in mutilple houses such as the Villa of Mysteries.
* Stemmed from Greece with Olympus (Alexander mother) was apart of the cult.

Temple of Isis: Egyptain influence
* 30% of worshippers named in inscritpions were women such as Julia Felix.
-> Due to Isis being the Egyptain god of fertility.
* Evidence of temple of Isis present in Herculaneum through tablets however not discovered yet.
* Performed two ritituals to the goddess everyday (everyday life).

Question 24

Religion: Household gods

Answer 24

All household gods would be worshiped in Lariam (household shrines)
* Regular sacrifices consiting of spelt wheat and grapes.
* Sacrifices were led by the paterfamilias (lead male of the family).

Larium at house of Vettii depicts lares, Genius and snake:
* Lares were a protective deities who are depicited holding a horn and dish in the other hand.
* Genius were lady dressed in a white toga who was a protective spirt whose purpose was to continue the family line.
* Snakes often depicted with the genius in which represented fertility and renewal.

Question 25

Religion: Tombs (Necropolis)

Answer 25

Only Pompeii necropolis have been excavated
-> Street of tombs located near Herculaneum gate
* Tomb of Eucmachia - largest tomb yet found in Pompeii, buillt during her lifetime.
-> Symbolised wealth of women in Roman society.

However, tombs can be inaccurate as their insription were a form of propaganda.

Question 26

Greek influence:

Answer 26

Art:
* Alexander Mosaic (House of the Faun)
* Mosaic of Greek deities

Architecture:
Theatres and palaetra in Pompeii such as Greek collumns (DIC):
1. Doric - flat base
2. Ionic - have a swirl
3. Corinthian - fancy pillars

Religious practice:
* Worship of greek gods such as Apollo and Greek cult of Dionysus.

Herculeanum was probably named after Hercules (mosaics of the demi-god found in the temple of Isis)

Question 27

Egyptian influence:

Answer 27

Art:
* Egyptian scene of the nile river found in the house of the Faun.
* Decorative uses of sphinxes and obelisks in peristylium.

Religious practice:
* Worship of the goddess Isis at both Herculaneum and Pompeii.