Cooper deck study materials Flashcards
AB Design
A two-phase experimental design consisting of a pre-treatment baseline condition (A) followed by treatment condition (B).
ABA Design
A three-phase experimental design consisting of an initial baseline phase (A) until steady state responding (or counter therapeutic trend) is obtained, an intervention phase in which the treatment condition (B) is implemented until the behavior has changed and steady state responding is obtained, and a return to baseline conditions (A) by withdrawing the independent variable to see whether responding “reverses” to levels observed in the initial baseline phase.
ABAB Design
An experimental design consisting of (I) an initial baseline phase (A) until steady state responding (or counter therapeutic trend) is obtained, (2) an initial intervention phase in which the treatment variable (B) is implemented until the behavior has changed and steady state responding is obtained, (3) a return to baseline conditions by withdrawing the independent variable to see whether responding “reverses” to levels observed in the initial baseline phase, and (4) a second intervention phase to see whether initial treatment effects are replicated (also called reversal design, withdrawal design).
Abative Effect
A decrease in the account frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that increased in reinforcing effectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, food ingestion abates (decreases the current frequency of) behavior that has been reinforced by food.
ABC Recording
See anecdotal observation.
Abolishing Operation
(AO) A motivating operation that decreases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event. For example, the reinforcing effectiveness of food is abolished as a result of food ingestion.
Accuracy
The extent to which observed values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the true state, or true values, of the event as it exists in nature.
Adjunctive Behavior
Behavior that occurs as a collateral effect of a schedule of periodic reinforcement for other behavior; time-filling or interim activities (e.g., doodling, idle talking, smoking, drinking) that are induced by schedules of reinforcement during times when reinforcement is unlikely to be delivered. Also called schedule-induced behavior:
Affirmation of the Consequent
A three-step form of reasoning that begins with a time antecedent-consequent (if-A then-B) statement and proceeds as follows: (I) If A is true, then B is true; (2) B is found to be true; (3) therefore, A is true. Although other factors could be responsible the truthfulness of A, a sound experiment affirms several if-A then-B possibilities, each one reducing the likelihood of factors other than the independent variable being responsible for the observed changes in behavior.
Alternating Treatments Design
An experimental design in which two or more conditions (one of which may be a no treatment control condition) are presented in rapidly alternating succession (e.g., on alternating sessions or days) independent of the level of responding; differences in responding between or among conditions are attributed to the effects of the conditions (also called concurrent schedule design, multielement design, multiple schedule design).
Alternative Schedule
Provides reinforcement whenever the requirement of either a ratio schedule or an interval schedule-the basic schedules that makeup the alternative schedule-is met, regardless of which of the component schedule’s requirements is met first.
Anecdotal Observation
A form of direct, continuous observation in which the observer records a descriptive, temporally sequenced account of all behavior(s) of interest and the antecedent conditions and consequences for those behaviors as those events occur in the client’s natural environment (also called ABC recording).
Antecedent
An environmental condition or stimulus change existing or occurring prior to a behavior of interest.
Antecedent Intervention
A behavior change strategy that manipulates contingency-independent antecedent stimuli (motivating operations). (See noncontingent reinforcement, high-probability request sequence, and functional communication training. Contrast with antecedent control, a behavior change intervention that manipulates contingency dependent consequence events to affect stimulus control.)
Antecedent Stimulus Class
A set of stimuli that share a common relationship. All stimuli in an antecedent stimulus class evoke the same operant behavior, or elicit the same respondent behavior. (See arbitrary stimulus class, feature stimulus class.)
Applied Behavior Analysis
The science in which tactics derived from the principles of behavior are applied to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for the improvement in behavior.
Arbitrary Stimulus Class
Antecedent stimuli that evoke the same response but do not resemble each other in physical form or share a relational aspect such as bigger or under (e.g., peanuts, cheese, coconut milk, and chicken breasts are members of an arbitrary stimulus class if they evoke the response resources of protein.) (Compare to feature stimulus class.)
Artifact
An outcome or result that appears to exist because of the way it is measured but in fact does not correspond to what actually occurred.
Ascending Baseline
A data path that shows an increasing trend in the response measure over time.
Audience
Anyone who functions as a discriminative stimulus evoking verbal behavior. Different audiences may control different verbal behavior about the same topic because of a differential reinforcement history. Teens may describe the same event in different ways when talking to peers versus parents.
Autoclitic
A secondary verbal operant in which some aspect of a speaker’s own verbal behavior functions as an S0 or an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior. The autoclitic relation can be thought of as verbal behavior about verbal behavior.
Automatic Punishment
Punishment that occurs independent of the social mediation by others (i.e., a response product serves as a punisher independent of the social environment).
Automatic Reinforcement
Reinforcement that occurs independent of the social mediation of others (e.g., scratching an insect bite relieves the itch). Automaticity (of reinforcement) refers to the fact that behavior is modified by its consequences irrespective of the person’s awareness; a person does not have to recognize or verbalize the relation between her behavior and a reinforcing consequence, or even know that a consequence has occurred, for reinforcement to “work.” (Contrast with automatic reinforcement.)
Aversive Stimulus
In general, an unpleasant or noxious stimulus; more technically, a stimulus change or condition that functions (a) to evoke a behavior that has terminated it in the past; (b) as a punisher when presented following behavior, and/or (c) as a reinforcer when withdrawn following behavior.
Avoidance Contingency
A contingency in which a response prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus. (Compare with Escape Contingency.)
BAB Design
A three-phase experimental design that begins with the treatment condition. After steady state responding has been obtained during the initial treatment phase (B), the treatment variable is withdrawn (A) to see whether responding changes in the absence of the independent variable. The treatment variable is then reintroduced (B) in an attempt to recapture the level of responding obtained during the first treatment phase.
Backup Reinforcers
Tangible objects, activities, or privileges that serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with tokens.
Backward Chaining
A teaching procedure in which a trainer completes all but the last behavior in a chain, which is performed by the learner, who then receives reinforcement for completing the chain. When the learner shows competence in performing the final step in the chain, the trainer performs all but the last two behaviors in the chain, the learner emits the final two steps to complete the chain, and reinforcement is delivered. This sequence is continued until the learner completes the entire chain independently.
Backward Chaining with Leaps Ahead
A backward chaining procedure in which some steps in the task analysis are skipped; used to increase the efficiency of teaching long behavior chains when there is evidence that the skipped steps are in the learner’s repertoire.
Bar Graph
A simple and versatile graphic format for summarizing behavioral data; shares most of the line graph’s features except that it does not have distinct data points representing successive response measures through time. Also called a histogram.
Baseline
A condition of an experiment in which the independent variable is not present; data obtained during base line are the basis for determining the effects of the independent variable; a control condition that does not necessarily mean the absence of instruction or treatment, only the absence of a specific independent variable of experimental interest.
Baseline Logic
A term sometimes used to refer to the experimental reasoning inherent in single-subject experimental designs; entails three elements: prediction, verification, and replication. (See steady state strategy.)
Behavior
The activity of living organisms; human behavior includes everything that people do. A technical definition: “that portion of an organism’s interaction with its environment that is characterized by detectable displacement in space through time of some part of the organism and that results in measurable change in at least one aspect of the environment.”
Behavior Altering Effect
An alteration in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, the frequency of behavior that has been reinforced with food is increased or decreased by food deprivation or food ingestion.
Behavior Chain
A sequence of responses in which each response produces a stimulus change that functions as conditioned reinforcement for that response and as a discriminative stimulus for the next response in the chain; reinforcement for the last response in a chain maintains the reinforcing effectiveness of the stimulus changes produced by all previous responses in the chain.
Behavior Chain Interruption Strategy
An intervention that relies on the participant’s skill in performing the critical elements of a chain independently; the chain is interrupted occasionally so that another behavior can be emitted.
Behavior Chain with a Limited Hold
A contingency that specifies a time interval by which a behavior chain must be completed for reinforcement to be delivered.
Behavior Change Tactic
A technologically consistent method for changing behavior derived from one or more principles of behavior (e.g., differential reinforcement of other behavior, response cost); possesses sufficient generality across subjects, settings, and/or behaviors to
Behavior Checklist
A checklist that provides descriptions of specific skills (usually in hierarchical order) and the conditions under which each skill should be observed. Some checklists are designed to assess one particular behavior or skill area. Others address multiple behaviors or skill areas. Most use a Likert scale to rate responses.
Behavior Trap
An interrelated community of contingencies of reinforcement that can be especially powerful, producing substantial and long-lasting behavior changes. Effective behavior traps share four essential features: They are “baited” with virtually irresistible reinforcers that “lure” the student to the trap; (b) only a low effort response already in the student’s repertoire is necessary to enter the trap; (c) once inside the trap, interrelated contingencies of reinforcement motivate the student to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic and/or social skills; and (d) they can remain effective for a long time because students shows few, if any, satiation effects.
Behavioral Assessment
A form of assessment that involves a full range of inquiry methods (observation, interview, testing, and the systematic manipulation of antecedent or consequence variables) to identify probable antecedent and consequent controlling variables. Behavioral assessment is designed to discover resources, assets, significant others, competing contingencies, maintenance and generality factors, and possible reinforces and/or punishers that surround the potential target behavior.
Behavioral Contrast
The phenomenon in which a change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the rate of responding on that component is ac companied by a change in the response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the schedule.
Behavioral Cusp
A behavior that has sudden and dramatic consequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic change itself because it exposes the person to new environments, reinforcers, contingencies, responses, and stimulus controls. (See pivotal behavior.)
Behavioral Momentum
A metaphor to describe a rate of responding and its resistance to change following an alteration in reinforcement conditions. The momentum metaphor has also been used to describe the effects produced by the high-probability (high-p) request sequence.
Behaviorism
The philosophy of a science of behavior; there are various forms of behaviorism. (See methodological behaviorism, medical behaviorism.)
Believability
The extent to which the researcher convinces herself and others that the data are trustworthy and deserve interpretation. Measures of interobserver agreement (IOA) are the most often used index of believability in applied behavior analysis. (See Interobserver agreement (IOA).)
Bonus Response Cost
A procedure for implementing response cost in which the person is provided a reservoir of rein forcers that are removed in predetermined amounts contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior.
Calibration
Any procedure used to evaluate the accuracy of a measurement system and, when sources of error are found, to use that information to correct or improve the measurement system.
Celeration
The change (acceleration or deceleration) in rate of responding over time; based on count per unit of time (rate); expressed as a factor by which responding is accelerating or decelerating (multiplying or dividing); displayed with a trend line on a Standard Celeration Chart. Celeration is a generic term without specific reference to accelerating or decelerating rates of response.
Celeration Time Period
A unit of time (e.g., per week, per month) in which celeration is plotted on a Standard Celeration Chart. (See Celeration and Celeration Trend Line.) The celeration trend line is measured as a factor by which rate multiplies or divides across the celeration time periods (e.g., rate per week, rate per month, rate per year, and rate per decade).
Chained Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the response requirements of two or more basic schedules must be met in a specific sequence before reinforcement is delivered; a discriminative stimulus is correlated with each component of the schedule.
Chaining
Various procedures for teaching behavior chains. (See backward chaining, backward chaining with leaps ahead, behavior chain, forward chaining.)
Changing Criterion Design
An experimental design in which an initial baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases consisting of successive and gradually changing criteria for reinforcement or punishment. Experimental control is evidenced by the extent the level of responding changes to conform to each new criterion.
Clicker Training
A term popularized by Pryor (1999) for shaping behavior using conditioned reinforcement in the form of an auditory stimulus. A handheld device produces a Click sound when pressed. The trainer pairs other forms of reinforcement (e.g., edible treats) with the click sound so that the sound becomes a conditioned reinforcer.
Component Analysis
Any experiment designed to identify the active elements of a treatment condition, the relative contributions of different variables in a treatment package, and/or the necessary and sufficient components of an intervention. Component analyses take many forms, but the basic strategy is to compare levels of responding across successive phases in which the intervention is implemented with one or more components left out.
Compound Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement consisting of two or more elements of continuous reinforcement (CRF), the four intermittent schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI), differential reinforcement of various rates of responding (DRH, DRL), and extinction. The elements from these basic schedules can occur successively or simultaneously and with or without discriminative stimuli; reinforcement may be contingent on meeting the requirements of each element of the schedule independently or in combination with all elements.
Concept Formation
A complex example of stimulus control that requires stimulus generalization within a class of stimuli and discrimination between classes of stimuli.
Concurrent Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which two or more contingencies of reinforcement (elements) operate independently and simultaneously for two or more behaviors.
Conditional Probability
The likelihood that a target behavior will occur in a given circumstance; computed by calculating (a) the proportion of occurrences of behavior that were preceded by a specific antecedent variable and the proportion of occurrences of problem behavior that were followed by a specific consequence. Conditional probabilities range from 0.0 to 1.0; the closer the conditional probability is to 1.0, the stronger the relationship is between the target behavior and the antecedent/consequence variable.
Conditioned Motivating Operation (CMO)
A motivating operation whose value-altering effect depends on a learning history. For example, because of the relation between locked doors and keys, having to open a locked door is a CMO that makes keys more effective as reinforcers, and evokes behavior that has obtained such keys.
Conditioned Negative Reinforce
A previously neutral stimulus change that functions as a negative reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more negative reinforcers.
Conditioned Punisher
A previously neutral stimulus change that functions as a punisher because of prior pairing with one or more other punishers; sometimes called secondary or teamed punisher.
Conditioned Reflex
A learned stimulus-response functional relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., sound of refrigerator door opening) and the response it elicits (e.g., salivation); each person’s repertoire of conditioned reflexes is the product of his or her history of interactions with the environment (ontogeny). (See respondent conditioning, unconditioned reflex)
Conditioned Reinforcer
A stimulus change that functions as a reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more other reinforcers; sometimes called secondary or learned reinforcer.
Conditioned Stimulus
The stimulus component of a conditioned reflex; a formerly neutral stimulus change that elicits respondent behavior only after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) or another CS.
Confidentiality
Describes a situation of trust insofar as any information regarding a person receiving or having received services may not be discussed with or otherwise made available to another person group, unless that person has provided explicit authorization for release of such information.
Conflict of Interest
A situation in which a person in a position of responsibility or trust has competing professional or personal interests that make it difficult to fulfill his or her duties impartially.
Confounding Variable
An uncontrolled factor known or suspected to exert influence on the dependent variable.
Consequence
A stimulus change that follows a behavior of interest. Some consequences, especially those that are immediate and relevant to current motivational states, have significant influence on future behavior; others have little effect.
Contingency
Refers to dependent and/or temporal relations between operant behavior and its controlling variables. (See contingent, three-term contingency.)
Contingency Contract
A mutually agreed upon document between parties (e.g., parent and child) that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of specified behavior(s) and access to specified reinforcer(s).
Contingency Reversal
Exchanging the reinforcement contingencies for two topographically different responses. For example, if Behavior A results in reinforcement on an FR 1 schedule of reinforcement and Behavior B results in reinforcement being withheld (extinction), a contingency reversal consists of changing the contingencies such that Behavior A now results in extinction and Behavior B results in Behavior A now results in extinction and Behavior B results in reinforcement on an FR 1 schedule.
Contingent
Describes reinforcement (or punishment) that is delivered only after the target behavior has occurred.
Contingent Observation
A procedure for implementing timeout in which the person is repositioned within an existing setting such that observation of ongoing activities remains, but access to reinforcement is lost.
Continuous Measurement
Measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class(es) of interest are detected during the observation period.
Continuous Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for each occurrence of the target behavior.
Contrived Contingency
Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) designed and implemented by a behavior analyst or practitioner to achieve the acquisition, maintenance, and/or generalization of a targeted behavior change. (Contrast with naturally existing contingency.)
Contrived Mediating Stimulus
Any stimulus made functional for the target behavior in the instructional setting that later prompts or aids the learner in performing the target behavior in a generalization setting.
Copying a Text
An elementary verbal operant that is evoked by a nonvocal verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the controlling response.
Count
A simple tally of the number of occurrences of a behavior. The observation period, or counting time, should always be noted when reporting count measures.
Counting Time
The period of time in which a count of the number of responses emitted was recorded.
Cumulative Record
A type of graph on which the cumulative number of responses emitted is represented on the vertical axis; the steeper the slope of the data path, the greater the response rate.
Cumulative Recorder
A device that automatically draws cumulative records (graphs) that show the rate of response in real time; each time a response is emitted, a pen moves upward across paper that continuously moves at a constant speed.
Data
The results of measurement, usually in quantifiable form; in applied behavior analysis, it refers to measures of some quantifiable dimension of a behavior.
Data Path
The level and trend of behavior between successive data points; created by drawing a straight line from the center of each data point in a given data set to the center of the next data point in the same set.
Delayed Multiple Baseline Design
A variation of the multiple baseline design in which an initial baseline, and perhaps intervention, are begun for one behavior (or setting, or subject), and subsequent baselines for additional behaviors are begun in a staggered or delayed fashion.
Dependent Group Contingency
A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the behavior of one member of the group or the behavior of a select group of members within the larger group.
Dependent Variable
The variable in an experiment measured to determine if it changes as a result of manipulations of the independent variable; in applied behavior analysis, it represents some measure of a socially significant behavior.
Deprivation
The state of an organism with respect to how much time has elapsed since it has consumed or contacted a particular type of reinforcer; also refers to a procedure for increasing the effective ness of a reinforcer (e.g., with holding a person’s access to a reinforcer for .a specified period of time prior to a session).
Descending Baseline
A data path that shows a decreasing trend in the response measure over time.
Descriptive Functional Behavior Assessment
Direct observation of problem behavior and the antecedent and consequent events under naturally occurring conditions.
Determinism
The assumption that the universe is a lawful and orderly place in which phenomena occur in relation to other events and not in a willy-nilly, accidental fashion.
Differential Reinforcement
Reinforcing only those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension(s) (i.e., frequency, topography, duration, latency, or magnitude) and placing all other responses in the class on extinction. (See differential reinforcement of alternative behavior, differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior, differential reinforcement of other behavior, discrimination training, shaping.)
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)
A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is delivered for a behavior that serves as a desirable alternative to the behavior targeted for reduction and withheld following instances of the problem behavior (e.g., reinforcing completion of academic worksheet items when the behavior targeted for reduction is talk-outs).
Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates (DRD)
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is pro vided at the end of a predetermined interval contingent on the number of responses emitted during the interval being fewer than a gradually decreasing criterion based on the individual’s performance in previous intervals (e.g., fewer than five responses per 5 minutes, fewer than four responses per 5 minutes, fewer than three responses per 5 minutes).
Differential Reinforcement of High Rates (DRH)
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is provided at the end of a predetermined interval contingent on the number of responses emitted during the interval being greater than a gradually increasing criterion based on the individual’s performance in previous intervals (e.g., more than three responses per 5 minutes, more than five responses per 5 minutes, more than eight responses per 5 minutes).
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)
A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is delivered for a behavior that is topographically incompatible with the behavior targeted for reduction and withheld following instances of the problem behavior (e.g., sitting in seat is incompatible with walking around the room).
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement (a) follows each occurrence of the target behavior that is separated from the previous response by a minimum inter response time (IRT), or (b) is contingent on the number of responses within a period of time not exceeding a predetermined criterion. Practitioners use DRL schedules to decrease the rate of behaviors that occur too frequently but should be maintained in the learner’s repertoire.
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)
A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior during or at specific times (i.e., momentary DRO); sometimes called differential reinforcement of zero rates of responding or omission training).
Direct Measurement
Occurs when the behavior that is measured is the same as the behavior that is the focus of the investigation.
Direct Replication
An experiment in which the researcher attempts to duplicate exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment.
Discontinuous Measurement
Measurement conducted in a manner such that some instances of the response class(es) of interest may not be detected.
Discrete Trial
Any operant whose response rate is controlled by a given opportunity to emit the response. Each discrete response occurs when an opportunity to respond exists. Discrete Trial, Restricted Operant, and Controlled Operant are synonymous technical terms.
Discriminated Avoidance
A contingency in which responding in the presence of a signal prevents the onset of a stimulus from which escape is a reinforcer.
Discriminated Operant
An operant that occurs more frequently under some antecedent conditions than under others.
Discriminative Stimulus (SD)
A stimulus in the presence of which responses of some type have been reinforced and in the absence of which the same type of responses have occurred and not been reinforced; this history of differential reinforcement is the reason an SD increases the momentary frequency of the behavior.
Double-blind Control
A procedure that prevents the subject and the observer(s) from detecting the presence or absence of the treatment variable; used to eliminate confounding of results by subject expectations, parent and teacher expectations, differential treatment by others, and observer bias.
DRI/DRA Reversal Technique
An experimental technique that demonstrates the effects pf reinforcement; it uses differential reinforcement of an incompatible or alternative behavior (DRI/DRA) as a control condition instead of a no-reinforcement (baseline) condition. During the DRJJ DRA condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcement in the reinforcement condition is presented contingent on occurrences of a specified behavior that is either incompatible with the target behavior or an alternative to the target behavior. A higher level of responding during the reinforcement condition than during the DRIIDRA Condition demonstrates that the changes in behavior are the result of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event.
DRO Reversal Technique
An experimental technique for demonstrating the effects of reinforcement by using differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) as a control condition instead of a no-reinforcement (baseline) condition. During the DRO condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcement in the reinforcement condition is presented contingent on the absence of the tar get behavior for a specified time period. A higher level of responding during the reinforcement condition than during the DRO condition demonstrates that the changes in behavior are the result of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event.
Duration
A measure of the total extent of time in which a behavior occurs.
Echoic
An elementary verbal operant involving a response that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response.
Ecological Assessment
An assessment protocol that acknowledges complex interrelationships between environment and behavior. An ecological assessment is a method for obtaining data across multiple settings and persons.
Empiricism
The objective observation of the phenomena of interest; objective observations are “independent of the individual prejudices, tastes, and private opinions of the scientist. …Results of empirical methods are objective in that they are open to anyone’s observation and do not depend on the subjective belief of the individual scientist.”
Environment
The conglomerate of real circumstances in which the organism or referenced part of the organism exists; behavior cannot occur in the absence of environment.
Escape Contingency
A contingency in which a response terminates (produces escape from) an ongoing stimulus.
Escape Extinction
Behaviors maintained with negative reinforcement are placed on escape extinction when those behaviors are not followed by termination of the aversive stimulus; emitting the target behavior does not enable the person to escape the aversive situation.
Establishing Operation (EO)
A motivating operation that establishes (increases) the effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event as a reinforcer. For example, food deprivation establishes food as an effective reinforcer.
Ethical Codes of Behavior
Statements that provide guide lines for members of professional associations when deciding a course of action or conducting professional duties; standards by which graduated sanctions (e.g., reprimand, censure, expulsion) can be imposed for deviating from the code.
Ethics
Behaviors, practices, and decisions that address such basic and fundamental questions as: What is the right thing to do? What’s worth doing? What does it mean to be a good behavior analytic practitioner?
Event Recording
Measurement procedure for obtaining a tally or count of the number of times a behavior occurs.
Evocative Effect
An increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is increased in reinforcing effective ness by the same motivating operation. For example, food deprivation evokes (increases the current frequency of) behavior that has been reinforced by food.
Exact Count-per-interval IOA
The percentage of total intervals in which two observers recorded the same count the most stringent description of IOA for most data sets obtained by event recording.
Exclusion Time-Out
A procedure for implementing time-out in which, contingent on the occurrence of a target behavior, the person is removed physically from the current environment for a specified period.
Experiment
A carefully controlled comparison of some measure of the phenomenon of interest (the dependent variable) under two or more different conditions in which only one factor at a time (the independent variable) differs from one condition to another. Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) A natural science approach to the study of behavior as a subject matter in its own right founded by B. F. Skinner; methodological features include rate of response as a basic dependent variable, repeated or continuous measurement of clearly de fined response classes, within-subject experimental comparisons instead of group design, visual analysis of graphed data instead of statistical inference, and an emphasis on describing functional relations between behavior and controlling variables in the environment over formal theory testing.
Experimental Control
Two meanings: (a) the outcome of an experiment that demonstrates convincingly a functional relation, meaning that experimental control is achieved when a predictable change in behavior (the dependent variable) can be reliably produced by manipulating a specific aspect of the environment (the independent variable); and (b) the extent to which a researcher maintains precise control of the independent variable by presenting it, with drawing it, and/or varying its value, and also by eliminating or holding constant all confounding and extraneous variables.
Experimental Design
The particular type and sequence of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence and absence (or different values) of the independent variable can be made.
Experimental Question
A statement of what the researcher seeks to learn by conducting the experiment; may be presented in question form and is most often found in a published account as a statement of the experiment’s purpose. All aspects of an experiment’s design should follow from the expediential question.
Explanatory Fiction
A fictitious or hypothetical variable that often takes the form of another name for the observed phenomenon it claims to explain and contributes nothing to a functional account or understanding of the phenomenon, such as “intelligence” or “cognitive awareness” as explanations for why an organism pushes the lever when the light is on and food is available but does not push the lever when the light is off and no food is available.
External Validity
The degree to which a study’s findings have generality to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors.
Extinction (operant)
The discontinuing of a reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior (i.e., responses no longer produce reinforcement); the primary effect is a decrease in the frequency of the behavior until it reaches a pre reinforced level or ultimately ceases to occur.
Extinction Burst
An increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented.
Extraneous Variable
Any aspect of the experimental setting (e.g., lighting, temperature) that must be held constant to prevent unplanned environmental variation.
Fading
A procedure for transferring stimulus control in which features of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., shape, size, position, color) controlling a behavior are gradually changed to a new stimulus while maintaining the current behavior; stimulus features can be faded in (enhanced) or faded out (reduced).
Feature Stimulus Class
Stimuli that share common physical forms or structures (e.g., made from wood, four legs, round, blue) or common relative relationships (e.g., bigger than, hotter than, higher than, next to). (Compare to arbitrary stimulus class.)
Fixed Interval (FI)
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered for the first response emitted allowing the passage of a fixed duration of time since the last response was reinforced (e.g., on an FI 3-minute schedule, the first response following the passage of 3 minutes is reinforced).
Fixed-Interval DRO (FI-DRO)
A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is available at the end of intervals of fixed duration and delivered contingent on the absence of the problem behavior during each interval.
Fixed-Momentary DRO (FM•DRO)
A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is available at specific moments of time, which are separated by a fixed amount of time, and delivered contingent on the problem not occurring at those moments. (See differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO).)
Fixed Ratio (FR)
A schedule of reinforcement requiring a fixed number of responses for reinforcement (e.g., an FR 4 schedule reinforcement follows every fourth response).
Fixed-Time Schedule (FT)
A schedule for the delivery of noncontingent stimuli in which a time interval remains the same from one delivery to the next.
Formal Similarity
A situation that occurs when the controlling antecedent stimulus and the response or response product (a) share the same sense mode (e.g., both stimulus and response are visual, auditory, or tactile) and (b) physically resemble each other. The verbal relations with formal similarity are echoic, coping a text, and imitation as it relates to sign language.
Forward Chaining
A method for teaching behavior chains that begins with the learner being prompted and taught to perform the first behavior in the task analysis the trainer completes the remaining steps in the chain. When the learner shows competence in performing the first step in the chain, he is then taught to perform the first two behaviors in the chain, with the training completing the chain. This process is continued until the learner completes the entire chain independently.
Free Operant
Any operant behavior that results in minimal displacement of the participant in time and space. A free operant can be emitted at nearly any time; it is discrete, it requires minimal time for completion, and it can produce a wide range of response rates. Examples in ABA include the number of words read during a 1-minute counting period, (b) the number of hand slaps per 6 seconds, and (c) the number of letter strokes written in 3 minutes.
Free Operant Avoidance
A contingency in which responses at any time during an interval prior to the scheduled onset of an aversive stimulus delays the presentation of the aversive stimulus.
Frequency
A ratio of count per observation time; often expressed as count per standard unit of time (e.g., per minute, per hour, per day) and calculated by dividing the number of response; recorded by the number of standard units of time in which observations were conducted; used interchangeably with rate.
Full-Session DRL
A procedure for implementing DRL in which reinforcement is delivered at the end of the session if the total number of responses emitted during the session does not exceed a criterion limit.
Function-Altering Effect (relevant to operant relations)
A relatively permanent change _in an organism’s repertoire of MO, stimulus, and response relations, caused by reinforcement, punishment, an extinction procedure, or a recovery from punishment procedure. Respondent function-altering effects result from the pairing and unpairing of antecedent stimuli.
Function Based Definition
Designates responses as members of the targeted response class solely in terms of their common effect on the environment.
Functional Analysis (as part of functional behavior assessment)
An analysis of the purposes (functions) of problem behavior, wherein antecedents and consequences representing those in the person’s natural routines are arranged within an experimental design so that their separate effects on problem behavior can be observed and measured typically consists of four conditions: three test conditions-contingent attention, contingent escape, and alone and a control condition in which problem behavior is expected to be low because reinforcement is freely available and no demands are placed on the person.
Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
A systematic method of assessment for obtaining information about the purposes (functions) a problem behavior serves for a person; results are used to guide the design of an intervention for decreasing the problem behavior and increasing appropriate behavior.
Functional Communication Training (FCT)
An antecedent intervention in which an appropriate communicative behavior is taught as a replacement behavior for problem behavior usually evoked by an establishing operation (EO); involves differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA).
Functional Relation
A verbal statement summarizing the results of an experiment (or group of related experiments) that describes the occurrence of the phenomena under study as a function of the operation of one or more specified and controlled variables in the experiment in which a specific change in one event (the dependent variable) can be produced by manipulating another event (the independent variable), and that the change in the dependent variable was unlikely the result of other factors (con founding variables) in behavior analysis expressed as b =f(xl), (x2); where b is the behavior and xl, x2, etc., are environmental variables of which the behavior is a function.
Functionally Equivalent
Serving the same function or purpose; different topographies of behavior are functionally equivalent if they produce the same consequences.
General Case Analysis
A systematic process for identifying and selecting teaching examples that represent the full range of stimulus variations and response requirements in the generalization setting(s).
Generalization
A generic term for a variety of behavioral processes and behavior change outcomes. (See generalization gradient, generalized behavior change, response generalization, response maintenance, setting, situation generalization, and stimulus generalization.)
Generalization Across Subjects
Changes in the behavior of people not directly treated by an intervention as a function of treatment contingencies applied to other people.
Generalization Probe
Any measurement of a learner’s performance of a target behavior in a setting and/or stimulus situation in which direct training has not been provided.
Generalization Setting
Any place or stimulus situation that differs in some meaningful way from the instructional setting and in which performance of the target behavior is desired.
Generalized Behavior Change
A behavior change that has not been taught directly. Generalized outcomes take one, or a combination of, three primary forms: response maintenance, stimulus/setting generalization, and response generalization. Sometimes called generalized outcome.
