Control of the People- Theme 3

Question 1

State control of mass media and propaganda

Answer 1

It was characterised by state control through Nationalisation, restriction of information and censorship. The purpose of control did not change but the government had to adapt to changes in society.

Question 2

Newspapers

Answer 2

A decree in 1917 banned all non-socialist newspapers and by 1920 they were eliminated. All journalists worked for the government and were expected to be a member of the party. Daily newspapers were called Pravda.

Question 3

Pravda

Answer 3

Was the communist government’s newspaper, and was vehicles of propaganda, highlighting the successes of the communist regime. Its purpose was to act as an instrument of propaganda and organisation. To ensure interest and readership newspapers were cheap and easy to read. It had a circulation of 10.7 million by 1883, with a print run of 13.5 million.

Question 4

Magazines

Answer 4

Alongside newspapers, there were magazines helping with everyones vast interests. These were more aimed at groups like workers or young people. Newspapers often gave sports coverage little spotlight so when Red sport soon to be taken over by Sovetskii sport, came in, It gained huge support.

Question 5

Radio

Answer 5

In 1917, it was a fairly recent development so therefore very easy for the soviets to control. It did not have a long tradition of independent activity. In order to get their message across to the people there would be huge speakers in the streets. Group listeners also resulted in a collective response which ensured everyone got the intended message.

Question 6

Why was Radio so important?

Answer 6

It allowed the government to get its intended message across to the 65% of the country who were illiterate. Radio stations were controlled by the government and by the 1920s they conveyed the official message along with classical music to make it more palatable.

Question 7

How did the speed in which could convey its message prove invaluable?

Answer 7

During German invasion in 1941, with the German forces less than 50 miles away, Stalin gave a speech live on Radio from Red Square, to commemorate the October Revolution. It was to prove highly effective to the Soviet Population that not all was lost in the war.

Question 8

Television

Answer 8

By the 1950s, TVs were a valuable way in getting their message across. In 1950, the USSR had 10,000 sets. By 1958 they had 3 million. Mass production in the 1960s brought their price down and by 1980s it was standard to have it in rural areas.

Question 9

Results of the control of mass media

Answer 9

Censorship and restriction of material were heavily used if not successfully. The Soviet Public got used to reading between the lines. The technology of mass media may have changed but the government ensured that a steady diet of propaganda was conveyed. Alongside overt propaganda, the government came to rely increasingly on output that provided a distraction from the realities of socialism.

Question 10

Personality Cults

Answer 10

A recurring theme of soviet propaganda was the tendency of individual leaders to develop a cult of personality, whereby their qualities and achievements as a leader were highlighted. The focus on individual leaders went against the socialist emphasis on collective. It was one of the features of Stalin’s rule, where trotsky accused him of turning it into a personal dictatorship. Khrushchev also accused Stalin of this but when he was removed in 1964, he was accused of creating a cult of personality. Brezhnev may have enjoyed less personal power but he too created a cult of personality whereby he could tap into power.

Question 11

Why was a cult of personality used?

Answer 11

It was used to reinforce the power of individual leaders and detach themselves from the collective leadership imposed by the Politburo.

Question 12

Lenin’s Cult of personality

Answer 12

As soon as Lenin was buried, he was being hailed as the hero of the Revolution. Images in Lenin appeared in different forms. His likeness was used to motivate the population to imitate his commitment to the revolution. The embalming of Lenin’s body in Red square is an example of this. Petrograd was also renamed Leningrad.

Question 13

How did Lenin’s Cult affect the party?

Answer 13

There is no doubt there was a wavering support for Lenin after his death and the party were able to build on this. Throughout the history of the Soviet Union, the cult of Lenin was used by successive leaders to support their claim to be the legitimate heirs of lenin and the socialist order.

Question 14

What did Stalin do in terms of Cult of personality?

Answer 14

Stalin actively promoted himself as the worthy defender of the work of Lenin. This was useful to reinforce Stalin’s claim to be Lenin’s rightful successor.

Question 15

Why was Stalin’s cult invaluable to Stalin’s career?

Answer 15

Firstly by linking him to Lenin to highlight his loyalty to the Lenin legacy during his manoeuvring for power in the 1920s, Secondly as a way of reinforcing his personal dictatorship in the 1930s.

Question 16

What were the key features of Stalin’s Cult of Personality?

Answer 16

• Firstly links between Lenin and Stalin were made even where there were none. Stalin was presented as Lenin’s closest colleague, a hero of the civil war.
• In the 1930s, images of Stalin were used to reinforce his power by giving the impression of an all-powerful knowing leader.
• Images portrayed Stalin as a benefactor, inspiration and defender of socialism. It would be with successes of the 5 year plans or with children to portray himself as a father like figure.
• Posters of Stalin in army uniform was common during ww2. Images of Stalin in front of the masses of Soviet troops clearly conveyed the message that Stalin was the defender of mother Russia.

Question 17

What was Stalin’s cult of personality like in the late 1940s?

Answer 17

By the late 1940s, the Stalin presented from his cult differed considerably from the real Stalin, so much so when gov officials saw Stalin in person they could not recognise him. By the early 1950s, the cult of personality was to reach ever ridiculous heights. Many towns had been named after Stalin.

Question 18

Summary of Stalin’s Cult of personality.

Answer 18

The cult of personality was an orchestrated propaganda campaign, but it was not entirely manufactured. By the end of WW2, Stalin’s popularity had grown and many soviet citizens viewed him as a benefactor, inspiration and defender of mother Russia. Even those his did not like him often had respect for him as a leader. It was telling that even prisoners in the gulag wept for him after his death.

Question 19

Khrushchev’s cult

Answer 19

Khrushchev had condemned Stalin’s use of a cult of personality in his secret speech in 1956. He criticised his monstrous glorification as a leader at the expense of the role played for soviet people.

Question 20

How did condemning Stalin’s cult help Khrushchev’s political uses?

Answer 20

Criticising the cult had political uses for Khrushchev as he pushed forward his policy of de-stalinisation. However, there would be advantages for him in developing his own cult of personality.

Question 21

How did a cult of personality suit Khrushchev?

Answer 21

It allowed him to be seen as the more important party leader when power had been originally shared in 1953 between Malenkov. It suited Khrushchev’s style of leadership which involved him personally meeting soviet citizens on a much greater scale than Stalin.

Question 22

Features of Khrushchev’s cult>

Answer 22

Visits to peasants on collective farms were good photo opportunities for the leader. This developed into adulation through articles, books and posters. His publicity increased when he appointed his son in law the editor of isvestiya. He also made use of Radio, Cinema and television for self-publicity, which took a more desperate tone as his policy failures mounted.

Question 23

Summary of Khrushchev’s cult

Answer 23

The development of the cult reflected his egotistical personality. Khrushchev’s cult was never on the scale of Stalin’s but it was evident enough for it to be one of the stated reasons for his dismissal in 1964.

Question 24

How was a cult of personality useful to Brezhnev?

Answer 24

It was useful after 1964 as Brezhnev sought to emerge as ‘first among equals’ in the power struggle with Kosygin and Podgorny that followed Khrushchev’s dismissal in 1964.

Question 25

How did Brezhnev's Cult of personality differ from the rest of the leaders?

Answer 25

It was less of a method of securing power than a substitute of real power. There is no doubt that Brezhnev was a popular leader and one of the key reasons for his popularity was the reluctance to use his power to bring about change. The cult gave Brezhnev the symbols of power without having to exercise it.

Question 26

Features of Brezhnev's cult?

Answer 26

Brezhnev was content with the tappings of power he had, especially the endless medals he was awarded. He was awarded at least 100 medals and a soviet joke was going around saying he would have to get his chest widened for all the medals.

Question 27

How did Brezhnev's Cult of personality take a turn?

Answer 27

It took on a more practical element after 1975 after his health deteriorated. A series of strokes and heart attacks left Brezhnev incapacitated. With the leader unable to function, the cult at least provided the appearance of leadership to the Soviet population.

Question 28

The advantages of a cult of personality

Answer 28

It was useful to have one person as a focus for unity and loyalty, especially during the tumultuous period of the five year plans of the 1930s and time at war. The cult provided a human face for socialism, which remained a rather abstract concept to many poorly educated Russians. It provided a figurehead that everyone could identify with the state. It made use of the traditional Russian attitudes, the population had been used to expressing their loyalty through one person e.g the tsars. The cult also filled a gap resulting the severe restrictions on religious worship.

Question 29

How did the Bolsheviks view religion?

Answer 29

The Bolsheviks saw religion as a threat to socialist ideology. The church provided a separate ideology to that of marxism. Christianity's emphasis on the rights to an individual contrasted with the collective mentality of socialism.

Question 30

How was the Russian Orthodox Church a threat to Lenin?

Answer 30

The Bolsheviks were atheists who dismissed religion as much more than superstitious nonsense. Lenin had a particular hatred towards priests and this informed the pace and tone of Bolshevik policy. There was a concern that the power and influence of the Russian Orthodox Church as an instrument of social control posed a threat to the imposition of socialist values and government control. The Russian Orthodox had ties with the tsars and the majority of the population took the word of their spiritual leaders seriously. Therefore, it was a large task that the Bolsheviks set themselves when they aimed to destroy the Church and the influence of Religion in general.

Question 31

What measures were put into place to severely limit the power and influence of religion?

Answer 31

- In 1918, the decree on freedom of conscience separated the Orthodox Church from the state and it lost its privileged status. - A large number of Churches were destroyed or turned into other purposes. The Government had closed all Monasteries by 1918 and head of Orthodox Church under house arrest. - During the famine of the civil war, attacks on the Church increased and valuable objects were seized to help pay for food supplies. Priests were deprived of the vote, rations and suffered as a result. By 1923, 23 bishops and 1000 priests were killed. - In 1929, the league of the Militant Godless was set up as a propaganda campaign against religion. It launched events to disapprove the existence of God. Peasants were put on the planes to prove that there was no Heaven.

Question 32

What were the effects of policies against the orthodox church?

Answer 32

By the end of the 1930s, 4/5 of the village churches were either not operating or had been destroyed. Bolshevik actions had severely restricted the Orthodox Church but failed to stamp out its influence. Surveys of the peasantry in the mid 1920s revealed that 55% were active christians.

Question 33

Changes to religious policy under Stalin

Answer 33

A campaign of religious repression accompanied Stalin's policy of collectivisation. More Churches were closed and village priests were labelled as kulaks, and deported. Further attacks followed during The Great Purge 1936-39, and by 1939 only 12 bishops were still at liberty.

Question 34

How did religious policy shift under Stalin?

Answer 34

It was not until German invasion of the USSR in 1941 that policy was changed. The church supported the war effort and this prompted accommodation between the Church and State. Stalin took a more liberal approach towards the Church; some Churches reopened and new seminaries were set up to train priests. There was some acknowledgement that religion could play a beneficial role in sustaining morale during the hardships of war.

Question 35

Khrushchev's anti religious campaign

Answer 35

Khrushchev was anti-religious and pursued a programme of active repression similar to that of Stalin before ww2. In 1958-59 Khrushchev launched a harsh anti-religion campaign that continued until his removal in 1964. The role of priests was limited to spiritual advice only. Parish councils were placed under the control of party officials who often took action to dismiss priests on the grounds that they were no longer needed. Within 4 years, 10,000 of the existing churches were closed. Surviving priests were often harassed by the Secret Police.

Question 36

How did Brezhnev view the Church?

Answer 36

With the fall of Khrushchev in 1964, active persecution of the Church declined. Brezhnev was aware that stories of persecution did not go well down in the West and had a damaging impact on the USSR's attempts to conduct foreign policy. Brezhnev was therefore happy to let the Church to act within its defined limits.

Question 37

What religious groups were treated differently by Brezhnev?

Answer 37

Those religious groups, such as Jews and Baptists, who were more likely to be critical of the regime were treated with less tolerance. Their evangelical activities of preaching to gain converts were restricted. Prayer meetings were broken up and members dismissed from their jobs. Nonetheless, unregistered congregations continued to meet and distribute prayer books.

Question 38

The influence of islam

Answer 38

The central Asian regions of the Soviet Union contained a sizeable Muslim Community. Dealing with Islam was a much more difficult task as it was engrained into the way of life and integrated into the community. The Bolsheviks feared that Islam's links to national minorities within the USSR may threaten the social cohesion of the state. The Bolsheviks initially made no attempt to reduce the influence of Islam. It was not until the mid 1920-s that the Government felt confident enough to attack islamic institutions and rituals.

Question 39

How did the Bolsheviks attack Islamic institutions and rituals?

Answer 39

- Religious endowments of land were prohibited, making the upkeep of mosques more difficult. - Most mosques were closed down - Sharia courts were phased out - Mullahs were removed during the collectivisation process often forced to publicly admit to being deceivers of the people - Ramadan fasting was condemned as interfering with work discipline.

Question 40

What did the policies on islam result in?

Answer 40

These measures resulted in a series of violent revolts in 1928-29, during the Chechens of southern Russia were particularly active. The unrest was crushed by Soviet armed forces. Many Muslims attempted to observe obedience to the state in public while retaining Islam practises in private. Others joined underground brotherhoods, to continue to fight for islamic rights.

Question 41

The results of religious policy

Answer 41

A survey commissioned by the government saw that only 25% of the population believed in God, far fewer were engaged in religious worship. The influence of formal religious structures declined considerably, but those who had remained faithful the actions of the government seemed to have intensified their religious commitment. An underground network of support developed that often provided sustenance to those whose needs were not met by the government.

Question 42

The use of Secret Police

Answer 42

Government control over the people was reinforced by an atmosphere of terror, implemented through heavy use of extensive state apparatus based on the activities of the secret police. Established by Lenin, the Bolsheviks' secret police was enlarged greatly under Stalin and terror became an essential feature of Stalinist Russia. Although terror became less cruel after Stalin's death, it remained a key feature of Soviet life until the collapse of the USSR.

Question 43

Attacks on the opponents of the Government

Answer 43

Lenin established the Cheka in 1917 and its task was to act against counter revolution and sabotage, a task it undertook with great ruthlessness.

Question 44

What was the Secret Police able to do during the civil war?

Answer 44

During the civil war, the Cheka were given powers that allowed it to act with minimal interference from other legal bodies. This meant that they could act quickly to destroy actual perceived enemies. The attempted assassination of Lenin in 1918 prompted a wave of arrests. The Cheka intensified its actions against social revolutionaries and Mensheviks during the Red terror of 1921 and 1922. up to 200,000 opponents were shot: execution now became the rule rather than exception.

Question 45

How was the Cheka reorganised after the Civil war?

Answer 45

After the Civil war, the Cheka was replaced by the GPU in 1922 and in the following year it became the OGPU. The significance of these changes was the growing independence of the secret police from interference of other state institutions. The secret police became a body that only took orders and instructions from the leadership of the government.

Question 46

How did the power of the secret police increase further in 1934?

Answer 46

It increased further due to the OGPU merging with a enlarged interior ministry, referred to as the NKVD. Stalin's programme of rapid industrialisation under Five Year plans had identified a range of opponents that needed to be dealt with to ensure the successful transformation of the Soviet Union. The kulaks and other peasants who opposed collectivisation were deported to the gulags run by the secret police.