Control of the people 1917-85 Flashcards

Question

What was Khrushchev’s stance on religion, and how did it impact religious groups?

Answer 1

Khrushchev was a fervent anti-religious leader who launched an active anti-religious campaign from 1958-59 until his removal in 1964. His campaign involved severely restricting the role of priests and placing parish councils under the control of Party officials. As a result, 10,000 churches were closed, and surviving priests faced harassment from the secret police. Religious minorities like Baptists and Jews faced heavy restrictions on congregational activities, and prayer meetings were often broken up.

Answer 2

Under Brezhnev (after 1964), active persecution of religion decreased, but the state still maintained control through the Council of Religious Affairs. Brezhnev allowed the Orthodox Church to function within defined limits, especially in supporting state policies and social programs. However, religious groups critical of the regime, such as Jews and Baptists, faced more repression, including restrictions on their ability to preach and hold meetings. In 1976, when a group of Orthodox priests formed the Christian Committee for the Defence of Believers' Rights, the Soviet government harshly cracked down on them, and Father Yakunin was imprisoned for anti-Soviet propaganda. Brezhnev’s Personality Cult: A personality cult emerged around Brezhnev, with an emphasis on his leadership qualities, reliability, and fatherly image. Statues and portraits of Brezhnev were widespread, and his image was promoted in state-controlled media. The promotion of Brezhnev’s image was part of the broader Soviet strategy to create a sense of stability and continuity after the upheaval of Khrushchev’s tenure, but the reality of his leadership was more bureaucratic than charismatic.

Answer 3

By the 1980s, only 25% of the population believed in God, and even fewer engaged in religious worship. Despite the decline in formal religious practice, those who remained faithful often became more committed, and underground networks provided support for believers. Soviet religious repression succeeded in diminishing formal religious structures but led to an intensification of faith among those who resisted the state’s pressure.

Answer 4

Lenin established the Cheka in 1917, which evolved into several forms, such as the GPU, OGPU, NKVD, and eventually the KGB under Khrushchev and Brezhnev. The secret police were central to enforcing government policies and maintaining control, particularly through terror and repression. Key milestones in the evolution of the secret police included the expansion of the Gulag system under Yagoda and the Great Purge under Stalin, where millions were arrested, tortured, and executed.

Answer 5

Yagoda (1924-1934) Position: Head of the NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs). Rise to Power: Yagoda was appointed by Stalin in 1924. He was one of Stalin's loyalists and worked alongside him in the early years of his rule. Key Actions: The White Sea Canal Project: Yagoda oversaw the construction of the White Sea Canal (1931-1933), where tens of thousands of political prisoners, including many prisoners of war and kulaks, were forced into slave labor. This project was infamous for its brutal conditions and high death rate. The Great Purge: Though not the main architect of the Great Purge, Yagoda played a significant role in the purges that began in 1934, overseeing the mass arrests and executions of perceived political enemies. Internal Repression: He initiated the NKVD’s expansion into widespread surveillance and the first wave of political repression in the 1930s, leading to the arrest of thousands of Soviet citizens on charges of political disloyalty or conspiracies against the state. Downfall: Yagoda’s power started to decline in 1934 when Stalin began to see him as ineffective and possibly disloyal. He was removed from his position and arrested in 1936 during the height of the Great Purge. In 1938, he was executed on charges of treason, espionage, and anti-Soviet activity.

Answer 6

Yezhov (1936-1938) Position: Head of the NKVD from 1936 to 1938. Known as the architect of the Great Purge. Rise to Power: Yezhov replaced Yagoda as head of the NKVD. Stalin, during this period, was intent on eliminating all perceived political enemies, both real and imagined, and Yezhov was a ruthless executor of this policy. Key Actions: The Great Purge: Yezhov oversaw the most brutal phase of Stalin's purges, in which hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens, including party officials, military leaders, and ordinary workers, were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, and executed. The purges were not limited to political enemies but also targeted ethnic minorities and groups perceived as a threat to Stalin’s absolute power. Terror and Arrests: Yezhov expanded the purges to include almost all sectors of Soviet society. He used the NKVD to spy on military leaders, party officials, and ordinary citizens. Anyone deemed an enemy of Stalin's regime was at risk of arrest and death. Use of Torture: Under Yezhov, the NKVD became notorious for its use of torture to extract confessions from prisoners, including fabricated ones. The trials that followed were often show trials, designed to publicly display the enemies of Stalin. Downfall: By 1938, the purges began to spiral out of control, and many of Stalin’s inner circle, including military commanders and other NKVD officials, had been purged. Stalin grew wary of Yezhov's power and his inability to control the process. In 1939, Yezhov was arrested, tried for treason, and executed. This marked the end of his tenure and the purges began to subside.

Answer 7

Position: Head of the NKVD (later reformed as the MGB, Ministry of State Security), and later Deputy Prime Minister and First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Rise to Power: Beria was appointed as the head of the NKVD after Yezhov’s downfall. He had been a long-time Stalin ally and had gained Stalin’s trust due to his competence in suppressing resistance and ensuring control over Soviet territories. Key Actions: Purges and Expansion: Beria oversaw the final phases of the Great Purge, particularly focusing on the arrest and execution of high-ranking military officials, party members, and anyone deemed a threat. However, he also started a period of relative consolidation after the purge, reasserting Stalin’s dominance within the Soviet apparatus. Deportation Campaigns: Beria was heavily involved in the deportations of various ethnic groups from the Soviet Union, including the Crimean Tatars, Chechens, and Ingush people, who were accused of collaborating with Nazi Germany during WWII. These groups were forcibly relocated to Central Asia and Siberia in conditions that led to many deaths. Atomic Bomb Development: Beria was instrumental in overseeing the Soviet nuclear program and the successful development of the Soviet atomic bomb in 1949. Post-War Suppression: After WWII, Beria’s NKVD continued a broad network of surveillance and suppression, targeting suspected “counter-revolutionary” elements in Soviet society. Downfall: After Stalin’s death in 1953, Beria attempted to consolidate power, seeking to position himself as the successor to Stalin. He proposed a more liberal and less repressive approach to governance, but his ambitions led to a quick downfall. Within months, he was arrested by rivals within the Communist Party, including Nikita Khrushchev. Beria was charged with treason, arrested, and executed in 1953.

Answer 8

Yagoda: Architect of the early Soviet terror, overseeing the White Sea Canal project and initiating some of the purges but failing to maintain Stalin’s trust. Yezhov: Key architect of the Great Purge, responsible for expanding terror and arrests across the USSR, but his excesses led to his downfall. Beria: Controlled the NKVD after Yezhov, overseeing the purges’ aftermath, deportations, and the development of the atomic bomb. His power ended after Stalin’s death when he was arrested and executed by his rivals.

Answer 9

The purges, initiated by Joseph Stalin, were a series of brutal political repression campaigns that aimed to eliminate perceived enemies within the Communist Party, the military, and Soviet society. Stalin's purges began in the late 1930s and escalated until the early 1940s, targeting individuals accused of disloyalty, espionage, or counter-revolutionary activities. The purges were a response to Stalin’s growing paranoia and desire to consolidate his power, which had been threatened by internal dissent and opposition within the Party. Lavrentiy Beria, Stalin's head of the NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), played a crucial role in organizing and executing the purges. Beria was responsible for overseeing mass arrests, interrogations, and executions during the purges, solidifying his reputation as one of the most ruthless figures in Soviet history. The purges targeted not only political opponents but also military leaders, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens, leading to widespread fear and repression across the USSR. Stalin relied on Beria's efficient use of terror and secret police networks to root out perceived enemies, with Beria using torture and threats to extract confessions. Beria's involvement ensured that the purges were swift and brutal, with the NKVD conducting arrests without due process, resulting in thousands of executions. Beria’s role in the purges allowed him to gain Stalin's trust and cement his position as a key power broker in the Soviet government. After Stalin's death, Beria would briefly attempt to gain control of the USSR but was eventually arrested and executed, a victim of the same political machinations he had once employed.

Answer 10

Stalin's purges created a pervasive atmosphere of fear that permeated every level of Soviet society, from the highest government officials to ordinary citizens. The constant threat of arrest, imprisonment, or execution led to widespread paranoia, as no one felt safe from the reach of Stalin's secret police. The purges dismantled the Soviet political elite, with many high-ranking officials either executed or sent to labor camps, leaving a void of leadership and institutional instability. Fear was further exacerbated by the NKVD's use of informants and forced confessions, often leading to the persecution of innocent individuals. The purges also served as a tool for Stalin to suppress any form of dissent or opposition, ensuring that his personal power was uncontested within the Party. Purges were not limited to the elite but extended to a broad swath of Soviet society, with accusations of “counter-revolutionary” activity leading to mass arrests and deportations. The political climate of repression forced many individuals to betray friends, family members, and colleagues in exchange for their own survival. The purges’ impact on Soviet society fostered a culture of distrust, where loyalty to Stalin was demanded, and any sign of criticism was harshly punished. The creation of a totalitarian state under Stalin, characterized by constant surveillance and control, was enabled by the fear generated by the purges.

Answer 11

The purges were primarily caused by Stalin's fear of losing power and his desire to eliminate any potential threats to his leadership. Stalin's growing paranoia about enemies both within and outside the Communist Party led to widespread purges in the military, political, and cultural spheres. The purges were also driven by Stalin’s belief in ideological purity, leading to the suppression of perceived traitors and anyone accused of deviating from Party orthodoxy. The purges resulted in the mass execution of Party members, intellectuals, military leaders, and ordinary citizens, with the NKVD playing a key role in enforcing Stalin's directives. Consequences of the purges included the destruction of the Soviet political and military leadership, with many key figures being executed or imprisoned. The purges led to a loss of intellectual and cultural vibrancy, as many artists, writers, and scholars were targeted for their perceived disloyalty or nonconformity. The military was decimated by the purges, weakening the Red Army just before World War II, which would have lasting implications for Soviet defense. The purges fostered an environment of political instability, with Stalin constantly reshuffling personnel and eradicating any potential rivals. The consequences for ordinary citizens were severe, with entire families being torn apart by arrests, imprisonment, and executions, leading to a society where survival depended on absolute loyalty to Stalin. The purges led to the creation of a climate where fear, surveillance, and control were central to Soviet life, stifling dissent and creativity.

Answer 12

Lavrentiy Beria’s role as head of the NKVD gave him significant power in executing Stalin's purges, allowing him to build a vast network of influence. Beria's efficiency in carrying out Stalin’s directives earned him Stalin’s trust and helped solidify his position as one of the most powerful figures in the Soviet government. By overseeing the purges, Beria had control over the secret police, which allowed him to manipulate information and eliminate rivals, thereby consolidating his political power. Beria’s success in implementing the purges made him an indispensable ally to Stalin, ensuring that Beria could rise to positions of greater influence and authority. Beria’s involvement in the purges made him a master of political maneuvering, as he used fear and loyalty to manipulate those around him. His role in the purges also positioned him as a potential successor to Stalin, and after Stalin's death, Beria sought to increase his power by purging his rivals within the Soviet government. Beria's ability to control the apparatus of repression gave him a powerful tool to suppress dissent and maintain control over key sectors of the Soviet state.

Answer 13

Beria’s purges directly impacted the lives of millions of ordinary Soviet citizens, as the NKVD arrested, interrogated, and executed individuals accused of political disloyalty. Citizens lived in constant fear of being accused of counter-revolutionary activity, with entire families suffering as a result of arbitrary arrests. Beria’s use of forced confessions and the widespread practice of torture meant that many innocent people were caught up in the purges and sent to labor camps or executed. Beria’s enforcement of Stalin’s policies, including the deportation of ethnic minorities, led to mass suffering, as entire communities were displaced and sent to Siberian labor camps. Ordinary people were forced to inform on their neighbors, colleagues, and family members, creating a culture of betrayal and mistrust that permeated Soviet society. The fear of being denounced led many to live in silence, as public expressions of dissatisfaction with the government were dangerous and could lead to imprisonment or death. Beria’s purges destroyed families, as many individuals were executed or sent to forced labor camps, causing long-lasting psychological and emotional trauma for the survivors.

Answer 14

Stalin’s increasing paranoia, rooted in his fear of potential plots against him, played a central role in the initiation and escalation of the purges. Stalin believed that he was surrounded by traitors, spies, and enemies both within the Communist Party and from external forces, which made him view purges as necessary for survival. His distrust of his closest allies, including Party members and military leaders, led to the systematic removal of anyone he perceived as a threat, even if they had once been loyal to him. Paranoia led Stalin to see even minor dissent or disagreement as evidence of disloyalty, prompting the widespread arrest and execution of perceived enemies. The purges were justified as a means to safeguard the revolution and eliminate those who could potentially undermine Soviet socialism. Stalin's fear that foreign powers might infiltrate the Party or that internal rivals would challenge his authority fueled the climate of terror that characterized the purges.

Answer 15

The purges severely weakened the Soviet military, as many senior officers were arrested and executed, including key commanders who could have played vital roles during World War II. The purges decimated the leadership of the Red Army, creating instability in the military and leaving the Soviet Union vulnerable in the early stages of the war. Stalin’s paranoia about potential military conspiracies led to the arrest and execution of many of the USSR's top generals, undermining the military’s effectiveness. The intelligence services, including the NKVD, were also impacted by the purges, as many experienced officers were removed from their positions, which led to inefficiencies in the Soviet intelligence apparatus. The purges led to the promotion of loyalists who were often less competent, further weakening both the military and intelligence sectors.

Answer 16

Internationally, Stalin’s purges were met with shock and condemnation, especially from Western democracies, which viewed the purges as a violation of human rights and political freedoms. Many foreign observers were alarmed by the scale and brutality of the purges, as reports of mass executions, imprisonment, and forced labor camps spread outside the USSR. Some Western leaders, particularly those with communist sympathies, justified the purges as necessary to protect the Soviet Union from internal and external enemies. Beria’s role in the purges earned him international notoriety as a symbol of the Soviet regime's ruthless methods, though some considered him a pragmatist who maintained order within the Party. The purges also had an impact on diplomatic relations, as many countries were wary of engaging with the USSR due to its repressive policies. Stalin and Beria’s actions strained relations with many international figures, though Stalin remained largely isolated from any direct consequences on the global stage.

Answer 17

Beria was particularly known for his ruthlessness in eliminating opposition, using extreme methods such as torture, forced confessions, and mass executions to suppress dissent. Unlike other Soviet leaders, Beria had a very direct and personal involvement in the purges, taking responsibility for many of the most brutal and wide-reaching campaigns. While Stalin's purges were characterized by a broad, ideological justification, Beria's approach was more pragmatic and focused on consolidating power through control of the NKVD and suppressing potential threats to his leadership. Beria was more willing to target anyone, including high-ranking officials and even former allies of Stalin, in order to maintain his power and influence. Beria's manipulation of the NKVD allowed him to exert influence over the political and military systems, and his control over the intelligence apparatus made him a key figure in Soviet repression.

Answer 18

Stalin’s purges left a lasting imprint on the political culture of the Soviet Union, creating an atmosphere of fear and distrust that would endure throughout the regime. The purges cemented Stalin's position as the ultimate authority in the USSR, but they also contributed to widespread political instability and inefficiency. The culture of surveillance and repression fostered by the purges remained a defining characteristic of Soviet governance, with the secret police playing an ongoing role in controlling the population. The purges erased much of the Soviet Union’s intellectual and military leadership, leaving a legacy of instability and uncertainty for future generations. The purges also highlighted the dangers of Stalin's totalitarian rule, as the destruction of entire political factions left the country vulnerable to internal and external challenges. Ultimately, the purges contributed to the perpetuation of a repressive system that continued to shape Soviet society, even after Stalin's death.

Answer 19

Andropov became General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1982, already having experience in dealing with popular discontent due to his previous role as head of the KGB. He had served as Soviet Ambassador to Hungary during the Hungarian Uprising of 1956, which exposed him to the dangers of dissident movements escalating into full-scale uprisings. This experience led him to view dissidents as potential threats to the state, and his approach to monitoring and controlling opposition was influenced by the lessons learned during this period. Other Politburo leaders were less concerned with dissent, but Andropov's leadership was shaped by his perception of the potential for dissident movements to threaten Soviet stability.

Answer 20

Andropov significantly increased surveillance on dissident groups starting in 1982, with methods becoming more sophisticated over time. Plain-clothes secret police officers, a stereotypical image, were indeed a part of this monitoring system, but the methods used by the KGB had evolved to include advanced technology. Conversations were recorded using tape and cassette recorders, while listening devices and cameras were hidden in items like briefcases and even bras. The KGB was well informed about the criticisms of the Soviet system voiced by dissidents, effectively neutralizing the threat they posed to social and political stability.

Answer 21

Anne Applebaum, a historian, noted that by the mid-1980s, key dissidents like Solzhenitsyn were in exile, and Sakharov was under internal exile in the city of Gorky. Peter Reddaway, a leading Western academic on Soviet dissent, wrote in 1983 that dissident groups had made little headway among ordinary Soviet citizens in the Russian heartland. While the KGB kept a close eye on dissidents like Roy Medvedev, the broader Soviet population seemed largely unaware or indifferent to their struggles.

Answer 22

Andropov recognized that while dissidents did not represent the majority, the growing economic problems in the USSR were a more significant source of discontent. He was particularly concerned with the inefficiencies of the Soviet economy and how economic stagnation could lead to widespread discontent if the government failed to improve living standards. He drew parallels to the unrest in Poland in 1980-81, which had been sparked by a decision to raise food prices, and understood that economic issues could destabilize the Soviet Union as well. Andropov famously said, "We'll make enough sausages, and then we won't have any dissidents," highlighting his belief that providing for the population’s basic needs could reduce unrest.

Answer 23

Andropov used the secret police to enforce discipline in the workforce by cracking down on absenteeism and alcoholism in the workplace. The KGB conducted surprise checks on factories to monitor attendance and combed the streets to catch workers skipping work. This crackdown angered many workers, especially women who had to juggle full-time jobs with the need to queue for food at stores. The queues for food were a result of cheap government-set prices, and people had to be in the right place at the right time to get the goods, which became a significant part of Soviet daily life. Despite efforts to improve efficiency, Andropov’s actions revealed that the public preferred waiting in queues to facing higher food prices.

Answer 24

Andropov recognized that the Party leadership was composed mostly of older men who had become disconnected from the realities of Soviet life, which led him to advocate for reform. He understood that the government needed to understand the concerns of the general population better, marking a significant departure from previous Soviet leaders. Andropov’s approach was to encourage the Party leadership to gain a deeper understanding of Soviet society, which he saw as vital for addressing the public's concerns.

Answer 25

Andropov took the lead by visiting factories to engage with workers, showing a genuine desire to listen to the public's concerns. One notable visit was in February 1983 to a Moscow factory, but the event was rather staged and lacked genuine warmth, as Andropov's serious demeanor and former role as head of the KGB made workers feel constrained during the interaction. A more effective method involved appointing government advisers, especially from intellectual circles, who were in touch with the public’s frustrations. He worked closely with sociologists and economists, such as Tatyana Zaslavskaya, who identified arbitrary administration as a key source of resentment among the people. Within the Party, Andropov promoted a younger generation of reformists, such as Mikhail Gorbachev, Yegor Ligachev, and Nikolai Ryzhkov, who would later play pivotal roles in attempting to reform the Soviet system.

Answer 26

Despite Andropov's recognition of the need for reform, his actions often fell short in addressing the public's concerns in a meaningful way. His methods focused more on instilling greater discipline within the existing system rather than implementing wide-ranging reforms to tackle the structural issues causing discontent. Andropov’s ill health significantly hampered his ability to push for broader reforms, even though he may have wanted to initiate deeper changes.

Answer 27

Despite the growing frustration with the government’s inability to address popular concerns, Soviet society in the mid-1980s was still relatively stable. There was little public criticism of the government, and social conflict was rare, partly due to the effective use of propaganda, censorship, rewards, and sanctions. The government’s system of control ensured that public dissatisfaction did not manifest in widespread rebellion or unrest. However, this stability should not be mistaken for contentment, as dissatisfaction and discontent were widespread, and "grumbling" was a common pastime among ordinary Soviet citizens.

Answer 28

The Soviet regime recognized that embedding communist values required more than propaganda and terror. The creation of a new "Soviet man" was a key aim, using artists and writers to build a new culture. Lenin initially underestimated the potential of culture for advancing communist ideology. After the Civil War, the government began using culture to promote its ideology. Stalin's regime, in the 1930s, intensified efforts to create a culture that idealized life under socialism. Artists and writers were expected to align with regime values, though not all were willing to comply. By the 1970s, Soviet culture developed its own distinct ethos, but tensions arose between the regime’s desire for conformity and the artists' independent expression.

Answer 29

Early 1920s: Prolekult promoted the Avant-garde movement. 1917: Establishment of the Commissariat of Enlightenment. 1928-1932: Launch of cultural policies; Stalin begins harnessing culture for political purposes. 1934: Congress of Writers promotes Socialist Realism. 1946: Cultural Revolution launched. 1954: Khrushchev’s cultural thaw begins. 1966: Trial of Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel. 1982: Start of Andropov’s suppression of the arts.

Answer 30

In 1917, the Bolshevik Party had divided views on culture and its importance. Lenin believed culture was vital but subordinate to class conflict and power retention. Lenin’s personal tastes were conservative, favoring classical Russian culture. Lenin supported keeping high-caliber artists and writers on the side of the Revolution. He established the Commissariat of Enlightenment to support artists, replacing old regime censorship. This encouraged many artists to work with the regime, particularly those sympathetic to the Revolution, called “Fellow Travellers.”

Answer 31

Prolekult, promoted by Alexander Bogdanov and Anatoly Lunacharsky, aimed to create a proletarian culture. Prolekult emphasized collective creativity over individualism. Workers and peasants were encouraged to produce their own culture, including writing and theater productions. A magazine, Sway, was established to feature poems about machines and factories. The government used festivals, like re-enactments of the Revolution, to promote socialist values. Prolekult was eventually restricted due to concerns over its diversity of viewpoints.

Answer 32

Socialist Realism, established in 1932, was the official art style of the Soviet regime. It aimed to present idealized images of life under socialism to inspire the population. Stalin viewed writers and artists as "engineers of human souls," tasked with promoting socialist ideals. Socialist Realism required art to avoid experimental forms and instead focus on promoting the Party’s values. The Union of Soviet Writers policed this movement, rewarding those who complied and restricting those who did not. Some prominent writers and poets, like Boris Pasternak and Anna Akhmatova, refused to comply, opting for silence or exile. Art, literature, and music under Socialist Realism often focused on glorifying workers, peasants, and the Party’s achievements.

Answer 33

Art: Socialist Realism rejected avant-garde styles, focusing on the worker and peasant as heroes of socialism. Literature: Novels depicted heroes from the people guided by the Party. Works like And Quiet Flows the Don by Mikhail Sholokhov became representative. Music: Stalin criticized works like Shostakovich’s Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, emphasizing more military-style music. Architecture: Stalinist Baroque, exemplified by Moscow University and the Moscow Metro, became the dominant architectural style. Film: Films like Eisenstein’s October presented the Revolution as a mass movement, glorifying the Party.

Answer 34

The Cultural Revolution, launched in the late 1920s, aimed to purge bourgeois elements from Soviet culture. Young communists in the Komsomol were encouraged to root out and attack “bourgeois” cultural elements. Writers and artists who were not fully loyal to socialism were removed. The Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) criticized “decadent” individualistic works and focused on glorifying industrial and collective achievements.

Answer 35

After Stalin’s death, there was some hope for greater artistic freedom, especially during Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization policy. Writers and artists were allowed to publish works previously banned under Stalin’s regime. However, many of these freedoms were limited, and the state continued to control cultural expression to some extent.

Answer 36

Works by Isaac Babel, a writer who had been shot during the purges, were published. Younger poets like Yevgeny Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky were allowed to publish experimental poetry. Jazz music made a reappearance in Soviet culture during this time. Khrushchev personally intervened to allow the publication of Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, which recounted life in the Gulag. Additional works by Solzhenitsyn followed, attacking aspects of Stalin’s terror, aligning with the political theme of de-Stalinization. Writers whose works didn’t fit into the political context of de-Stalinization still faced restrictions. Sholokhov openly criticized official Soviet culture, calling it "grey trash." Writers explored new themes like spiritual concerns, rural life, and social issues like adultery, divorce, and alcohol abuse, which were not part of the idealized depiction promoted by Socialist Realism. Even low-brow literature, like science fiction, began to subtly criticize Soviet society.

Answer 37

By the late 1950s, nonconformity began impacting Soviet youth culture significantly. Soviet youth grew tired of the repetitive, unexciting official cultural output. Influenced by Western music, youth culture embraced pop and rock 'n' roll, with smuggled Western records becoming popular. These youth groups, wearing Western fashions like tight suits and short skirts, were labeled "slog" by the authorities, who saw them as rude and ignorant. From 1955, music from the Voice of America radio station began broadcasting into the USSR.

Answer 38

One notable figure was Alexander Galich, a guitar poet who composed and performed his own work. Guitar poets focused on the individual's feelings and often highlighted social alienation. Their performances were held in underground venues, with small audiences. Works were often distributed through "magnitizdat" (tape recorder self-publishing), which spread their music more widely despite government opposition.

Answer 39

When Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev in 1964, there was not a return to the strict application of Socialist Realism. However, cultural boundaries became narrower, with more certainty about what was permissible but still limited creative expression. Official culture still focused on promoting the achievements of socialism and the Soviet state. Many artists found official culture undemanding, and nonconformity began to rise as a result. By the 1970s, Soviet culture became more conservative, with themes like sexuality becoming more sensitive than political topics. The denevensk school of village prose romanticized rural life and hinted at critiques of Soviet urban life, which caused unease in the government. Russian nationalism, though somewhat encouraged by the government, was criticized by non-Russian writers and occasionally criticized the Soviet Union. Popular music continued to be influenced by Western trends. One influential figure was Vladimir Vysotsky, a guitar poet whose songs about sex and delinquency resonated with Soviet youth. Vysotsky's funeral in 1980 saw an overwhelming outpouring of grief, indicating growing youth alienation from Soviet society.

Answer 40

The Soviet government struggled to suppress Western music trends, even though they understood their growing appeal. Control was maintained over record production and radio airtime, but the development of the cassette recorder undermined these efforts. By the early 1980s, cassette recorders were widely available, allowing for the spread of nonconformist music and ideas.

Answer 41

Nonconformity continued to irritate the government, with artists and writers finding new ways to avoid conforming to state expectations. Some artists emigrated or were exiled, while others refused to work under the state's restrictions. Despite the challenges, the Brezhnev years made it easier for artists to use subtext in their work to undermine the system. Readers and audiences became skilled at interpreting the messages behind these works, increasing the impact of nonconformity.

Answer 42

Boris Pasternak and Doctor Zhivago: Pasternak's novel Doctor Zhivago contained criticisms of the Revolution, leading to a ban on its publication in the USSR. Khrushchev intervened and banned the novel without reading it, but it was smuggled abroad and published in Italy in 1957. The novel received positive reception and led to Pasternak winning the 1958 Nobel Prize for Literature. Khrushchev refused to let Pasternak travel to Sweden to receive his prize, resulting in international embarrassment for the Soviet government. Abstract Art: Khrushchev was strongly opposed to abstract art, viewing it as a frivolous form of expression. In 1962, during an exhibition of young artists' works at the Kremlin, Khrushchev angrily criticized abstract art, publicly humiliating the artists. Despite his rage, no further action was taken against them, indicating a shift in cultural tolerance. Jazz Music: Khrushchev was also critical of jazz music, calling it "indecent" and a negative influence on Soviet culture. Komsomol groups were tasked with monitoring youth behavior in dance halls to identify inappropriate trends. In 1961, the government even held a conference to decide which dance moves were permissible, but this initiative failed to enforce cultural conformity.

Answer 43

Khrushchev's cultural policies were often influenced by his personal mood swings. He became less tolerant of nonconformity toward the end of his leadership, which was reflected in his policies. His successors continued this less tolerant stance, further constricting cultural expression.

Answer 44

Joseph Brodsky, who had dropped out of school at 15, began writing poetry and was encouraged by Anna Akhmatova. His poems were read aloud at secret gatherings, which attracted the attention of the secret police. Brodsky was not licensed as a poet under the Writers' Union and was accused of parasitism and the "depravity" of his poetry. The trial served as a message to other artists who wished to work independently of the state. Brodsky was sentenced to five years of hard labor, as his work was deemed to have no material value to the Soviet state. Despite the severe sentence, court records were kept and smuggled abroad, leading to an international campaign for his release. After two years, Brodsky was released and expelled from the Soviet Union. This trial highlighted the limits of tolerance under Brezhnev's government despite the Khrushchev-era thaw.

Answer 45

Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel were arrested in 1965 for writing novels that depicted life in the Soviet Union as harsh and surreal. Although the novels were written under pseudonyms, the KGB soon took notice, and the writers were accused of anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 70 of the criminal code. The case was significant because the charges were directly based on the content of their literary works. The arrest sparked a demonstration by over 200 students and an open letter of support from 63 intellectuals. Over 200 letters were sent to the Twenty-third Party Congress asking for the case to be reviewed. On 10 February 1966, Sinyavsky was sentenced to seven years in a labor camp, and Daniel to five years. The harsh sentences were intended to serve as a warning to other artists and writers.

Answer 46

The government used state subsidies to control and direct cultural output. Access to radio and venues was controlled to ensure that only approved content was broadcast. Artists and writers who served the state's interests were rewarded with privileges and awards. Employment could be withdrawn from those who caused trouble, and artists who strayed from acceptable themes were given talks by government officials warning them of the consequences. More punitive measures were taken against those who continued to push boundaries, such as the expulsion of Solzhenitsyn from the Writers' Union in 1969 and later from the Soviet Union in 1974. Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago was condemned as anti-Soviet propaganda, though it was still published abroad.

Answer 47

Abstract and experimental art remained a point of contention between the government and nonconformist artists. In 1970, the director of the Novosibirsk art gallery was sentenced to eight years in prison for displaying works by dissident artists. In 1975, a group of unofficial artists organized an open-air exhibition, which was met with a propaganda campaign and attacks by "enraged public" (officially recruited hooligans). Authorities used bulldozers to destroy the exhibition, but after foreign press coverage, the art was allowed to be put back on display after being patched up.

Answer 48

By 1982-84, Andropov's government took stronger measures against nonconformist elements in popular culture, such as underground music scenes. The government restricted rock music output, limiting songs not composed by official Soviet composers to 20 percent of radio airtime. A commission was set up to vet rock bands before allowing performances. Komsomol groups were tasked with patrolling the streets to monitor unacceptable behavior among youth.

Answer 49

Many artists and writers preferred to conform and avoid trouble with the authorities to keep their livelihoods intact. Most of the general public preferred traditional, undemanding cultural output over more intellectually stimulating works. Nonconformist artists were often viewed as self-indulgent and disconnected from the harsh realities of daily life in the Soviet Union.

Answer 50

By the 1970s, economic hardship had become the primary threat to order and stability in the Soviet Union, overshadowing calls for political change. The government's ability to provide better economic conditions and material benefits became crucial for maintaining public consent for the Communist Party’s continued rule. Without significant economic improvement, the Soviet government's propaganda about its achievements began to ring hollow.