Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
What percentage of the world live in urban areas?
More than 50%
80% of the UK population live in urban areas
Name one reason urbanisation is faster in LIC’s
More people are moving because of better work and health opportunities. Which is better available in cities. Also better services and life expectancy.
Which demographic tends to move into cities?
Young people - looking for work and better opportunities
What is the definition for suburbanisation?
“Suburbanisation is the outward growth of urban development where people move to the suburbs.”
Suburbs are the outlying areas of the city which are close enough to the CBD for easy access for commutes.
What is counter-urbanisation?
Is when large numbers of people move from urban areas into rural areas or surrounding countryside.
What is the definition of a mega city and how many mega cities are there in the world.
A mega city is a city is a metropolitan area in which the population is greater than 10 million people. There are 35 in the world. 1. Tokyo 2. Delhi 3. Mumbai 4. Mexico City
What changes do cities face over time? What does this often lead to?
Deindustrialisation, rise of the service economy, decentralisation.
This normally leads to urban polices and regeneration schemes.
Name one example of a regeneration scheme. Name one positive element and one negative of this change.
London Docklands
- was a derelict site but after regeneration and rejuvenation it is now a hotspot for professionals with very expensive housing.
Strength
Changed a once derelict area into a thriving business hotspot
Weakness
Unaffordable for people once living there.
What is the definition of urban forms?
Physical characteristics that make up built areas. Including shape, size density and configuration of settlements.
Name one consequence of urban growth.
Urban sprawl - leads to overcrowding and stress on services and resources.
The spatial patterns of land use in urban areas are said to follow the burgess model. Describe this model.
The centre of the model is this CBD: where commercial business and international exchange occurs.
The next ring is the inner city: which has a mix of poor housing and older industrial housing.
The third ring is the suburbs: which represent residential housing, often cheaper than the CBD.
The final ring is the rural-urban fringe which is the edge of a city where there urban and rural uses.
Name three negative consequences of urbanisation.
- Economic inequality
- Social segregation
- Cultural diversity
These can then lead to racism, hate crime and abuse.
Name three social problems of urban areas and solutions.
- Shortage of good quality housing
- Run down CBD’s
- Traffic congestion
These issues can be fixed by renewal schemes such as creating new towns like Milton Keynes which was made in 1970.
What is urban climate and how does urbanisation affect it?
Urban climate refers to climatic conditions within urban areas.
Urbanisation changes the form of the landscape and consequently produces change in the air quality.
Surfaces also become impermeable which impacts water drainage.
What is the urban heat island effect?
An urban heat island, or UHI, is a metropolitan area that’s a lot warmer than the rural areas surrounding it. Heat is created by energy from all the people, cars, buses, and trains in big cities like New York, Paris, and London. Urban heat islands are created in areas like these: places that have lots of activity and lots of people.
How and why does precipitation vary in urban areas compared to rural?
As the darker surfaces of the city absorb more heat energy, the warmer temperatures will mean there are greater rates of evaporation.
State a consequence of urban precipitation.
Urbanisation can damage rivers and the water cycle through contamination and pollution.
This can be solved through water conservation and development of sustainable urban damage systems.
Name four environmental problems in urban environments.
- Atmospheric pollution
- Water pollution
- Dereliction
- Urban Waste (biggest problem)
What is the definition for sustainable living.
Sustainable living involves meeting the needs of today without affecting people in the future.
What are the four pillars of sustainability.
- Natural
- Physical
- Social
- Economic
For a project to be sustainable it must address these three pillars.
Name 5 ways a city can be sustainable.
- Schemes to reduce waste and safely dispose it.
- Conserving natural environments and historic buildings.
- Building on brownfield sites
- Building carbon neutral homes. E.g BEDZED 🌱
- Creating an efficient public transport system.
Name an example of a sustainable city.
Curitiba in Brazil 🇧🇷
What is are the aims for Curitiba and there population.
Curitiba has a population of 1.8 million.
The planners aim to improve the environment, reduce pollution and waste and improve the quality of life of its residents.
20 marker practice for sustainable living.
- Name 3 ways your chosen place has achieved sustainable living.
Curitiba - Brazil
- Reduced car use:
- there is a good bus system that transports 1.4 million people per day.
- There are 200km of bike paths - Open spaces and conserved natural environments
- there are over 1000 parks and residents have planted 1.5 million trees - Good recycling schemes
- 70% of rubbish is recycled
How much has the urban population grown from 1950 to 2014?
1950 - 746 million
2014 - 3.9 billion
And the expected growth from 2014 to 2050 is 34%
Name a two causes of urban growth
Natural population growth - These migrants who move are in their fertile years and
so the rates of natural increase are higher in cities than in the surrounding
rural areas.
Rural to urban migration
Name three strategies to improve shortage of housing in LIC’s (slums)
- Eradicate slums - Knocking down the slum housing. This simply moved the problem somewhere else.
- Self help or site and service schemes - These schemes acknowledge the presence of slums and
provide help in the form of materials or services. For example ownership of land - Slum upgrading programmes - More recent initiatives that seek to improve slums in partnership with local Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and development organisations.
Name and describe an example of Shortage of housing in higher-income cities
Example- London
In some parts of London there was a 50% rise in average house prices between 2010 and 2015. This was fuelled partly by in-migration, gentrification and by the purchasing of properties by wealthy foreign investors.
London is a major global hub and oversea investors buy properties there
to diversify their international portfolio. This causes house prices to rise.
Waste disposal: Rubbish is also seen as
an opportunity to make money in other cities.Name and describe an example of this.
Example - Nairobi, Kenya Recycling is an important part of the everyday economy.
old car tyres are cut up and used to make cheap sandals
washing machines doors are used as kitchen bowls, and the drums as storage units
glass bottles are collected and returned to stores for refilling
food waste is collected and fed to animals or composted for use on vegetable plots
tin cans and old oil drums are used to make charcoal stoves, lamps, buckets and
metal tips for ploughs.
What is the definition of a meta-city?
A conurbation of over 20 million people
What is the definition of homogenisation?
The process of people, products and places becoming the same (in this case city landscapes which have become indistinct from one
another.)
What is the definition of under-employment?
When a person is not doing work that makes full use of their skills and abilities. This may occur when a migrant moves to a new city.
What is the city challenge scheme? Give an example and describe it.
Example : Manchester
Competitive scheme. Cities with the ‘best’ schemes were awarded government regeneration grants.A local authority led scheme which formed partnerships between the private sector, local communities and the local authority.
Strategies focused on tackling social, economic and environmental problems in run-down parts of the city.
What is Urban Development Corporations (1980s)
Give an example and describe it
Example: London Docklands
Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) were set up in the 1980s primarily to regenerate inner-city areas. Boards were
mostly made up of people from the local business community. These were directly funded by government.
What is New Deal for Communities (2000s) give an example and describe it
NDC Partnerships were established to carry out 10-year schemes designed to transform the 39 most deprived neighbourhoods and improve them.
Example: Devonport Regeneration Company
What is Devolution
The transfer or delegation of power to a lower level, especially by central
government to local or regional administration.
What is urban policy?
Strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the
development of urban areas and reduce urban problems.
What is a World City?
This is a city with a global influence and impact e.g. because of their financial status or global
commercial power
What are the four typesof hubs? (World cities) breifly describe them.
Hubs of business, transport and trade: They dominate global trade and consumer activity with headquarters for Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
Production hubs: although most manufacturing and production of goods is carried out in developing countries and Newly Industrialising Countries
many of the decisions about marketing and production are made by TNCs, most of which have headquarters in world cities.
Political hubs: world city politicians often dictate trading and economic links between countries.
Migration hubs: world cities have influence because they attract large numbers of qualified talented people who are globally mobile
Describe what is meant by a Fortress Landscape (New Urban Landscapes)
This refers to landscapes designed around security, protection, surveillance and exclusion/
In the UK simple strategies have been adopted to reduce crime in urban hotspots e.g. city
centre and inner city estates.
for example - CCTV, Mosquito alarms in order to prevent young people loiterring etc.
Describe what is meant by an Edge city?
These are self-contained settlements which have emerged beyond the
original city boundary and developed as cities in their own right and they are
most common in North America.e.g LA
The core city is about 30 km wide with a population of under 4 million. However this is surrounded by a metropolitan area of nearly 18 million
people more than 100 km at its widest.Within this area there are more than 20 edge cities
Describe the concept of the “Post-modern Western City”
The term postmodernism is used to describe the changes that took place in Western society and culture in the L20th century. Both fortress landscapes and edge cities have been viewed as features of the postmodern western city.
What is a PLVI or a Peak Land Value Intersection?
The most expensive location in a town or city.
E.g: Chelsea or Knightsbridge in London
Or
Calabasas in LA
Give an example of social-economic inequality?
The worlds most expensive home (Antilla) towers over Byculla (Mumbai), one of the biggest slums in the world.
Name one way of measuring deprivation?
The Index of Multiple Deprivation
UK government qualitative study measuring deprivation at small area level across England.
Describe the term “Urban social Exclusion”.
The term urban social exclusion refers to the problems faced by residents in areas of multiple deprivation. These people are excluded from full participation
in society by their social and physical circumstances. Often, they cannot access a decent job because of poor education or obtain decent housing because
of poverty. They often suffer poor health and from high levels of crime in an unattractive physical environment.
Give an example of a place with cultural diversity.
London is considered to be one of the most diverse cities in the world. More than 300 languages are spoken by the people of London, and the city has at least 50
non-indigenous communities with populations of 10,000 or more.
Give four reasons why there is greater cultural diversity in cities.
- Cities tend to offer better employment
- Cities are the first point of entry for many migrants
- Cities tend to house earlier immigrants with the same ethnicity
- There are usually specialist shops such as halal shops
Name some benefits of cultural diversity.
- Greater exposure to different foods
- Different music
- Languages
- Religion
Describe the diagram of the urban microclimate.
There are two levels within the urban dome.
Below the roof level there is an urban canopy which locates just above buildings.
Above this is called the urban boundary layer.
20 marker practice for sustainable living.
- Name 3 ways your chosen place has achieved sustainable living.
Curitiba - Brazil
- Reduced car use:
- there is a good bus system that transports 1.4 million people per day.
- There are 200km of bike paths - Open spaces and conserved natural environments
- there are over 1000 parks and residents have planted 1.5 million trees - Good recycling schemes
- 70% of rubbish is recycled
Name some issues with London’s Heat Island Effect.
- Temperatures can be uncomfortable on public transport systems in the summer months.
- Hot and still anticyclonic weather conditions are responsible for intensive urban heat island events and cause pollution.
- Can put strain on air conditioning.
- More water consumption in hotter months (think obvious)
- Increased risk of damage to historic buildings, weathering etc.
Name three strategies for managing the Urban Heat Island
- Cool surfaces - cool roofs built from high reflective materials.
- Green roofs - reduce temperatures dramatically also decrease runoff
- Urban greening - increase shade
Name five climate effects of the UHI (Urban Heat Island)
- Precipitation: frequency and intensity:Rainfall can be higher over urban areas than rural areas.
- Fog and thunderstorms: Intensity, frequency and length of fogs are much greater
- Cloud cover is also increased
- Relative Humidity: humidity is actually lower in uban areas
- Wind: the effects of urban structures and layout on wind speed
What is smog?
A mixture between smoke and fog.
An example of this is the great smog in London.
What is photochemical smog? And give an example of an area that is suffering with this problem.
Type of smog called photochemical smog that is linked to damage to pants and discomfort to people e.g. headaches, eye irritation, coughs and chest pains.
Los Angeles has had a serious problem with photochemical smog for decades because of its high density of vehicles, frequent sunshine and basin topography that traps photo-oxidant gases. This is linked to the famous Los Angeles “eye sting”.
Name three pollution reduction polices in London.
- Clean air acts - only allowed to release a certain amount of co2 annually.
- Zoning of industry - industry is located downwind of cities
- Vehicle control and public transport - hybrid vehicles, charge on driving into London etc.
Give an example of a way to deal with the flood problems in urban areas due to smooth and impermeable surfaces.
The LA River channel is designed to be fail-safe.Devastating flash flooding of the LA River led to the city authorities in the 1930s to convert it from natural and meandering to cement and controlled.
The Cheonggyecheon River Project, Seoul, South Korea: why was it built? How much did it cost?
218 million dollars
residential health, sustainability and social responsibility. Aswell as saftey for the motaway above that awas ageing.
The Cheonggyecheon River Project, Seoul, South Korea: Where is Seoul and what is its population?
Seoul is one of the world’s largest cities, with a population of over 10 million people
The Cheonggyecheon River Project, Seoul, South Korea: what were its successes?
- deemed a toursit attraction now that attracts lots of money into the area
- improved connectivity of people
- its reduced pollution levels
- reduced congestion
- promoted Cheonggyecheon businesses
What is municipal waste?
Municipal waste (MSW) is commonly known in the U.K as refuse of rubbish. For example kitchen waste all the way to toxic waste.
Name five types of municipal waste (MSW)
- Biodegradable waste
- Recyclable waste
- Electrical waste
- Toxic waste
- Biomedical waste
Name six types of waste disposal methods.
- Landfill
- Incineration
- Submergence (oceans)
- Trade - global trade of wastes (electronic)
- Recycling
Waste: describe the AEB in Amsterdam
Amsterdam has created the Afval Energie Bedrijf (AEB) incineration plant capable of producing 1 million MWh of electricity annually.
64% of the waste that ends up at the plant is recycled.
Next door to the W2E plant is the Waternet water treatment plant. The two plants work together: the incineration plant supplies energy and heat for water treatment processes
Urban waste and it’s disposal: What is the definition of a waste stream.
The complete flow of waste from its source through to recovery, recycling or disposal.
What is the definition of dereliction?
Dereliction refers to the state of
buildings / an area having been abandoned and become dilapidated. In urban areas, derelict areas are often
associated with former industrial sites or run-down housing estates.
Name three causes of dereliction.
Ageing and decay - Pre-war buildings are expensive to maintain
Outmigration – linked to suburbanisation and deindustrialisation
Loss of industry - Urban activities may move to better and more profitable locations.
Name five impacts of dereliction.
- Crime and vandalism rates tend to be higher
- House prices fall
- Out-migration of residents.
- High costs involved in urban renewal
- Derelict land can pose a risk to human health.
Give three examples of ways to deal with dereliction in an urban area.
One of the most common strategies for dealing with urban dereliction is through regeneration schemes.
- Using brownfield sites in urban areas
- Land remediation - this is where you remove pollution or contaminates from the area so you can build on them
- commnuity action (less common) - converting buildinmgs into places for the community, cafes, libraies etc.
Pollution: Name four causes of water pollution in urban areas.
- Surface runoff from streets carrying oil, and contaminates from vehicles
- Untreated or poorly treated sewage
- Rubbish dumps which can leak pollutants into the water
- Air pollution can lead to acid rain
Pollution: Describe a case study about water problems
India suffers chronic water problems
over half of India’s rivers were polluted. A primary cause of this was the quantity of domestic sewage generated by rapidly expanding towns and cities.
untreated sewage flowing in open drains was causing serious deterioration of groundwater quality with knock-on impacts to human health.
The Prime Minister has made cleaning the Ganges, the river that is holy to Hindus, a key policy goal.
Pollution: Name two ways of managing water pollution in HIC’s
In most high-income countries, water quality improvement focuses on two approaches:
- The construction of water-treatment facilities and
wastewater plants. - Regulations aimed at ‘point source’ polluters such as
industries which discharge water pollution into receiving waters or sewer
systems that flow into treatment plants.
The Thames Tideway Tunnel - how much raw sewage was deposited into the thames in 2014?
55 million tonnes of raw sewage was washed into the river.
The Thames Tideway Tunnel - What is the problem and what is the sollution
Now: The low level interceptor sewers fill up and overflow into the River Thames.
After: The overflow will be diverted into the tunnel instead of going into the river
Water pollution: What is “Low-impact development” (LID)?
Storm water management approach that can help reduce water runoff. This is done by the use of vegetation and permeable surfaces to allow infiltration of water into the ground.
Another way is to build permeable streets and green roofs. Building green parks allow for water to be infiltrated into the soil rather than the sewers.
Water Pollution: in terms of strategies, what is legislation, regulation and enforcement?
There are many different anti-pollution laws and agreements in operation worldwide. However, these laws need to be enforced.
ways of enforcing are:
- charging per unit of pollution
- Regulation works in a similar way. Factories are allowed to discharge only limited amounts of carefully controlled pollutants.
Water Pollution: in terms of strategy, what is education and awareness?
The more people know about the causes and effects of pollution, the more likely they will pollute themselves.
For example, campaigns such as binning wet wipes rather than flushing them down the toilet because the block the sewers.
Water Pollution: in terms of strategy, what is improvements in technology and briefly give an example.
This is improvement in the sewage and wastewater processing.
An example of this is the “Janicki omniprocessor” it aims to clean water in LIC’s.
It works by boiling the raw sewage sludge during which the water vapour is separated from solids. This is then burnt to produce electricity. The water vapour is then put through a cleaning system so it is safe to drink.
What is “non-point source Pollution”?
Pollution that is the result of run-off from a variety of sources such as pesticides and fertilisers from agriculture.
How is atmospheric pollution caused?
Atmospheric pollution is caused by the release of particles and noxious gases into the atmosphere which can then have a negative effect on humans.
Briefly explain what, pollution episodes are.
Human activity produces the pollutants however it is very determined by the weather. For example:
Cold / wet weather - pollutants are either blown or washed away
Hot (anticyclonic) weather - pollution can build up to harmful amounts, called pollution episodes.
Name three case studies about air pollution?
- Dhakha, Bangladeshi
- Los Angeles, California
- London
Briefly explain the main cause of air pollution in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
- Vehicle emissions - 90% of vehicles are 2 stroke engines which are very polluting.
In 2010 how many Londoners died prematurely from air pollution?
9,400
Sustainability: How many people live in slums?
828 million (and increasing)
Name some things that rapid urbanisation will put stress on.
- fresh water supplies
- sewage systems
- public health
- employment
Define the term “ecological footprint”.
An area of land or sea that is needed to produce all the inputs a city uses and to dispose of its outputs.
A city’s ecological footprint is always way bigger than the actual city itself.
In terms of strategy for developing more sustainable cities, describe the strategy “greener built environments”.
Environments that use water and energy efficiently, reduce urban waste and increase recycling.
In terms of strategy for developing more sustainable cities, describe the strategy “planned expansion”.
To encourage “compact cities” and planned expansion, rather than uncontrolled and unrestricted urban sprawl.
In terms of strategy for developing more sustainable cities, state how economic opportunities can help a city become sustainable.
To provide a range of local opportunities including new opportunities in a “green” economy.
Sustainable Settlement Case study: Freiburg Germany
What percentage of the city is forested?
40% of the city is forested.
Green spaces are protected and enhanced.
Sustainable Settlement Case study: Freiburg Germany
How is the River Dreisam sustainable?
It is unmanaged, therefore provides city with natural water.
No pollution enters water. Therefore there are lots of SUDS.
Sustainable Settlement Case study: Freiburg Germany
How many jobs are created by economic dimensions (solar tech)?
10,000 jobs
Sustainable Settlement Case study: Freiburg Germany
How many km of bike lanes are there?
And how much of transport is public transport?
500km network for bike lanes
20% of transport is public transport
Sustainable Settlement Case study: BEDZED
How has BEDZED tackled transportation?
It is located on a bus route.
Only a 5 minute walk from the train station and 15 minute walk to tramlink.
Pay as you drive encourages only essential car use.
Sustainable Settlement Case study: BEDZED
Name 3 environmental benefits of BEDZED.
- Construction materials sourced within 50 miles
- Triple glazed windows reduce need for heating
- South facing housing to maximise heat from sun
- 37% less co2 production than average building
Sustainable Settlement Case study: BEDZED
Name 2 economic benefits of BEDZED.
- Heating costs 88% less than a comparable sized house
- Water consumption reduced by 50%
- Electricity use was 25% than UK average
What is liveability in terms of sustainability?
It refers to the locations which provide the best and worst living conditions globally.
What is an eco city?
A city that aims to provide a healthy environment for its inhabitants without using more resources than it replaces.
What are the two case study locations of contrasting urban areas?
London and Rio.
Where is Rio de a Janeiro?
Brazil 🇧🇷
What is Rio famous for?
- Stunning beaches
- carnivals
- famous landmarks (Christ)
- hosting huge sport events (Olympics)
What is Rocinha and where is it located?
Rocinha is south americas largest favela, and is located in south zone of Rio. It over looks the main beaches and the richest post code in Rio with 24 7 security.
How is suburbanisation facilitated?
- transport networks and private car ownership
What is urban resurgence?
The economic and structural regeneration of an urban area.
- made city living mor attractive
Name 4 exams of urban resurgence and the reasons behind.
London, Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham
Former industrial cities, reinvented themselves that are now cities of culture and commerce.
What is urban growth?
The increase in the total population of a town or city.
What is urban expansion?
The increase in size of city
