Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
describe urbanisation
-the growth in the proportion of a country’s population that lives in urban areas
-in 2014, over 50 percent of population lived in towns or cities
-urban populations grow as a result of rural-urban migration.
-pull factors attract people to the urban areas as they anticipate an improved quality of life due to easier access to education or healthcare and more employment opportunities
-push factors force people from rural areas such as environmental pressures, food shortages or political conflict
what are megacities?
megacities are urban areas which are defined by their size, with a population over 10 million, rather than their global significance
in the 1950s there were only two known megacities however by 2030 it is predicted that 43 cities around the globe will have more than 10 million inhabitants
describe the role of technological processes leading to the growth of mega cities
-urban areas often grow into centres for technological advancement, such as Bangalore which is situated in southern India
-Bangalore city has experience rapid population growth from approximately 700,000 in 1950 to a current population of 13 million.
-the abundance of employment opportunities in the technology sector largely pull migrants into the city
-subsequent to a build up of technical expertise and multi skilled labour force this has lead to the development of heavy concentrations of research and development centres
describe the role of economic processes leading to the growth of mega cities
-the rural-urban migration associated with urbanisation pulls in a large population to urban areas. this means more residents are working and contributing to a developing economy.
-urbanisation has resulted in a shift in primary sector employment such as the agricultural industry to tertiary sector employment such as finance. the shift lead to the creation of higher wage jobs and more profitable businesses
-despite this, economic inequalities may arise due to unsustainable urbanisation. As cities become overpopulated and there is minimal resources the population will be challenged to maintain a satisfactory quality of life.
describe the role of social processes leading to the growth of mega cities
-as cities become larger and wealthier, Individuals with different social and cultural backgrounds migrate into a city causing the urban areas to develop into cultural hubs and increasing multiculturalism
-for example, the capital city London has a population of 9.5 million with 1/3 of this population being foreign born. As a result, this has led to the creation of UK’s largest china town with over 80 Chinese restaurants
what are world cities and what is their role in the global economy?
-world cities are urban areas defined by their importance to world affairs such as London, Tokyo and New York
-world cities are significant in global politics through hosting international summits like G8 which allow leaders to impliment their influence as a means to develop economic links globally.
-world cities exert a dominant influence of the global economy with only 100 cities accounting for 30 percent of the global economy.
-these cities are observed as centres for learning with high quality educational institutions where ideas are shared between universities
-world cities such as London and New York have emerged as leaders of banking and finance with many banking companies placing their headquarters in these cities
describe sub-urbanisation
-the migration of people from the city centres to the outskirts of the city
-this could be resultant of a desire for larger, more modern housing or a perception of fewer urban problems of crime and gangs
-there is a loss of more affluent, middle class families from the central city which can lead to economic segregation
describe counter urbanisation
-the movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural areas
-this could be resultant of a preference for a quieter rural lifestyle or due to transport improvements allowing easier commuting to work
-growth of villages onto greenbelts and loss of agricultural land
describe deindustrialisation in newcastle upon tyne
-populated with ship building and steel yards, with direct access to the River Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne was ideal for trade giving the city a global presence in trade.
-the area which was once dominated by primary and secondary activity spun into a spiral of decline due to the fact firms began to outsource their labour from foreign countries. this is because it became more cost-effective than internal production due to lower labour costs
-following deindustrialisation, it left masses of people without a source of income and increased the levels of social deprivation with deindustrialisation in the UK causing unemployment to rise above 3 million in 1983
describe the rise of the service economy
-to counter deindustrialisation government policy has promotes tertiary and quaternary industries such as finance and banking which has led to a shift towards a service-orientated economy
-in the UK, manufacturing has decreased from 26 percent of our economy in the 1950s to just over 15 percent, whilst service contributes to 78 percent
describe the city challenge policy as part of britain’s urban policies? (bottom up)
-the City Challenge established in 1991 entailed allocating government funding to targeted areas in need, with local authorities occupying a larger role within the regeneration.
-newcastle’s west end benefitted from the initiative, encouraging £80 million of private cash. The scheme entailed numerous local community based projects including the construction of the john marley community centre for training and the extension to newcastle breweries, generating 280 jobs.
-the West end has been an area of concentrated disadvantage for a long period of time therefore despite strides to regenerate the area, many properties still remain derelict and there is failure for students to achieve in school.
describe urban development corporations as part of britain’s urban policies? (top down)
-national schemes which are funded by large corporations or governments are examples of top down policy which often have a more economic focus
-in 1987, following newcastle’s deindustrialisation, the Tyne and Wear Development Corporation was established by the UK government with a property led motive.
-over £430 million of government funding went in to improvement of infrastructure and the public realm, including the transformation of ten historic buildings along the quayside such as the Baltic flour mill.
-its major projects were predominantly flagship projects including the £140 million business park development
-from an outsider perspective, the UDC’s scheme was positive, encouraging £1,114 million of private sector investment alongside increasing the cities cultural significance
-from an insider perspective, the transformation was perceived negatively with many local communities forced to relocate to accomodate for new developments. The 12 UDCs across the UK were criticised for ignoring the needs of the local residents
describe enterprise zones as part of britain’s regeneration?
-in 1981, Enterprise zones were established in areas with high unemployment
-they aimed to attract start-up companies to the areas to create jobs by reducing tax
-by 1990 the enterprise zones housed over 5000 companies and employed over 125 000 people
-however trax reductions encouraged existing companies to move their premises into the enterprise zones which limited the number or new jobs they created
define urban form
urban form is the physical characteristics that make up a city including its size, shape, population density and land use patterns
how do physical factors affect urban form?
-the steep topography of the land can be make it more challenging to build on and less accessible so poorer housing is often built on slopes
-an area rich in resources may encourage growth in size and population of the city
-some land types are more difficult or challenging to be built upon such as swamps or wetlands so limit urban growth
-the presence of lakes and seas limit urban growth in these areas whilst cities may grow along the river course due to more efficient access to trade
how do human factors affect urban form?
-urban expansion can be planned or unplanned. in developing countries the expansion is due to unplanned growth in the periphery regions which results in the development of lower-cost, informal housing
-new developments are often constructed along transport links such as major motorways as this leads to linear growth
explain gentrification of areas
-gentrification is the process of which low income groups become displaced by more affluent groups moving into the area
-during the 1960s to 1970s notting hill went through its first stages of gentrification with the abolition of rent controls as a result of the 1975 rent act which helped private landlords drive out the working class inhabitants through higher rents.
-the wealthier inhabitants regenerate the inner city areas through improvements to housing and the movement of more services and business in to the area contributes to a positive multiplier effect as the businesses gain greater custom
explain fortress landscapes
fortress landscapes are developments deliberately landscaped and designed around security, protection and surveillance.
fortress landscapes implement gated communities where people live in housing estates that are surrounded by walls and security personnel. the strategies in these areas include CCTV.
-they are designed to create a safe environment however are divisive as only affluent individuals can afford to buy them
explain town centre mixed developments
town centre mixed development is any urban development that blends residential, commercial, cultural and entertainment uses
Trinity Square in gateshead, Tyne and Wear is an example of a town centre mixed development subsequent to government regeneration
following economic decline as a result of competition from Newcastle Upon Tyne and the Metro Centre, the area was dominated by predominantly secondary or tertiary retail and commercial offer primarily serving low income local population. this meant it was challenging to attract higher value tenants. the town centre possessed an ageing public stock with low levels of investment in recent years. this meant numerous properties were vacant or unused.
the regeneration provided a variety of 45 retail units, student accommodation associated with social facilities for Northumbria university, a multi screen cinema and a car park with over 700 spaces.
what is a post modern western city
-many cities, particularly in developed countries are moving away from clear-cut patterns of land use
-these cities have a service orientated economy as opposed to agriculture and manufacturing
-these cities have fragmentation as they posses multiple centres with different purposes rather than a single centre
-these cities possess less uniform architecture with buildings possessing a wider range of styles
-there is ethnic diversity due to an influx in population because of worldwide immigration. thisleades to greater polarization and inequality as immigration clusters develop
explain edge cities
-edge cities are large urban areas which are situated on the outskirts of a city,
-predominantly developed close to major transport links. the majority of edge cities have developed since the 1950s subsequent to a rise in car ownership
- an example is silicon valley in California where hi-tech companies have founded an edge city
assess the role of suburbanisation in Rio de Janeiro
-during the industrialisation of the city, taking place from 1945 to the late 1970s, Rio De Janeiro experienced years of economic prosperity and the expansion of the labour market. this encouraged the arrival of immigrants who were attracted by better prospects for the future and caused a subsequent increase in the population.
-The number of favelas evolved, constituting as the main housing option for the poor with the wealthiest inhabitants dominating the city centre. the informal housing frequently has limited sanitation and water amenities
-poverty became spatially concentrated in the periphery where the poor population increased 81.4 percent. This means the most remote regions of the city is inhabited by the poorest residents and is intensified by the limited accessibility due to the poor transport system links and topography. this limits their employment opportunities and reduces their income
assess the role of suburbanisation in London
-in developed economies , expensive, larger housing is positioned in the suburbs of a city and the land use patterns mirror economic patterns, with wealthier, less deprived populations inhabiting the outskirts of the city
-in london the land value is higher in inner city areas meaning developments are densely compacted meaning there is low access the green spaces. This is where low income families are largely situated
-london is not an equally distributed city with 10 percent of residents holding 45 percent of London’s total net wealth and the bottom 10 percent holding none of london’s total net wealth
-many inner city area such as Notting hill have experience gentrification which has forced poorer residents out of the area
what is the urban heat island effect
the urban heat island effect refers to a phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas
the urban heat island effect occurs due to the nature of urban surfaces as they have a lower surface albedo therefore enhance the absorption of insolation, maintaining high surface temperatures.
the urban heat island effect occurs due to a lack of vegetation in the area which means less heat energy is released through evapotranspiration.
the urban heat island effect occurs due to industrial activity which emits a dome of particulate pollution above the urban area and therefore attenuates the amount of insolation that can be reflected back
