Contemporary Urban Environments

Question 1

describe urbanisation

Answer 1

-the growth in the proportion of a country’s population that lives in urban areas
-in 2014, over 50 percent of population lived in towns or cities
-urban populations grow as a result of rural-urban migration.
-pull factors attract people to the urban areas as they anticipate an improved quality of life due to easier access to education or healthcare and more employment opportunities
-push factors force people from rural areas such as environmental pressures, food shortages or political conflict

Question 2

what are megacities?

Answer 2

megacities are urban areas which are defined by their size, with a population over 10 million, rather than their global significance
in the 1950s there were only two known megacities however by 2030 it is predicted that 43 cities around the globe will have more than 10 million inhabitants

Question 3

describe the role of technological processes leading to the growth of mega cities

Answer 3

-urban areas often grow into centres for technological advancement, such as Bangalore which is situated in southern India
-Bangalore city has experience rapid population growth from approximately 700,000 in 1950 to a current population of 13 million.
-the abundance of employment opportunities in the technology sector largely pull migrants into the city
-subsequent to a build up of technical expertise and multi skilled labour force this has lead to the development of heavy concentrations of research and development centres

Question 4

describe the role of economic processes leading to the growth of mega cities

Answer 4

-the rural-urban migration associated with urbanisation pulls in a large population to urban areas. this means more residents are working and contributing to a developing economy.
-urbanisation has resulted in a shift in primary sector employment such as the agricultural industry to tertiary sector employment such as finance. the shift lead to the creation of higher wage jobs and more profitable businesses
-despite this, economic inequalities may arise due to unsustainable urbanisation. As cities become overpopulated and there is minimal resources the population will be challenged to maintain a satisfactory quality of life.

Question 5

describe the role of social processes leading to the growth of mega cities

Answer 5

-as cities become larger and wealthier, Individuals with different social and cultural backgrounds migrate into a city causing the urban areas to develop into cultural hubs and increasing multiculturalism
-for example, the capital city London has a population of 9.5 million with 1/3 of this population being foreign born. As a result, this has led to the creation of UK’s largest china town with over 80 Chinese restaurants

Question 6

what are world cities and what is their role in the global economy?

Answer 6

-world cities are urban areas defined by their importance to world affairs such as London, Tokyo and New York
-world cities are significant in global politics through hosting international summits like G8 which allow leaders to impliment their influence as a means to develop economic links globally.
-world cities exert a dominant influence of the global economy with only 100 cities accounting for 30 percent of the global economy.
-these cities are observed as centres for learning with high quality educational institutions where ideas are shared between universities
-world cities such as London and New York have emerged as leaders of banking and finance with many banking companies placing their headquarters in these cities

Question 7

describe sub-urbanisation

Answer 7

-the migration of people from the city centres to the outskirts of the city
-this could be resultant of a desire for larger, more modern housing or a perception of fewer urban problems of crime and gangs
-there is a loss of more affluent, middle class families from the central city which can lead to economic segregation

Question 8

describe counter urbanisation

Answer 8

-the movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural areas
-this could be resultant of a preference for a quieter rural lifestyle or due to transport improvements allowing easier commuting to work
-growth of villages onto greenbelts and loss of agricultural land

Question 9

describe deindustrialisation in newcastle upon tyne

Answer 9

-populated with ship building and steel yards, with direct access to the River Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne was ideal for trade giving the city a global presence in trade.
-the area which was once dominated by primary and secondary activity spun into a spiral of decline due to the fact firms began to outsource their labour from foreign countries. this is because it became more cost-effective than internal production due to lower labour costs
-following deindustrialisation, it left masses of people without a source of income and increased the levels of social deprivation with deindustrialisation in the UK causing unemployment to rise above 3 million in 1983

Question 10

describe the rise of the service economy

Answer 10

-to counter deindustrialisation government policy has promotes tertiary and quaternary industries such as finance and banking which has led to a shift towards a service-orientated economy
-in the UK, manufacturing has decreased from 26 percent of our economy in the 1950s to just over 15 percent, whilst service contributes to 78 percent

Question 11

describe the city challenge policy as part of britain’s urban policies? (bottom up)

Answer 11

-the City Challenge established in 1991 entailed allocating government funding to targeted areas in need, with local authorities occupying a larger role within the regeneration.
-newcastle’s west end benefitted from the initiative, encouraging £80 million of private cash. The scheme entailed numerous local community based projects including the construction of the john marley community centre for training and the extension to newcastle breweries, generating 280 jobs.
-the West end has been an area of concentrated disadvantage for a long period of time therefore despite strides to regenerate the area, many properties still remain derelict and there is failure for students to achieve in school.

Question 12

describe urban development corporations as part of britain’s urban policies? (top down)

Answer 12

-national schemes which are funded by large corporations or governments are examples of top down policy which often have a more economic focus
-in 1987, following newcastle’s deindustrialisation, the Tyne and Wear Development Corporation was established by the UK government with a property led motive.
-over £430 million of government funding went in to improvement of infrastructure and the public realm, including the transformation of ten historic buildings along the quayside such as the Baltic flour mill.
-its major projects were predominantly flagship projects including the £140 million business park development
-from an outsider perspective, the UDC’s scheme was positive, encouraging £1,114 million of private sector investment alongside increasing the cities cultural significance
-from an insider perspective, the transformation was perceived negatively with many local communities forced to relocate to accomodate for new developments. The 12 UDCs across the UK were criticised for ignoring the needs of the local residents

Question 13

describe enterprise zones as part of britain’s regeneration?

Answer 13

-in 1981, Enterprise zones were established in areas with high unemployment
-they aimed to attract start-up companies to the areas to create jobs by reducing tax
-by 1990 the enterprise zones housed over 5000 companies and employed over 125 000 people
-however trax reductions encouraged existing companies to move their premises into the enterprise zones which limited the number or new jobs they created

Question 14

define urban form

Answer 14

urban form is the physical characteristics that make up a city including its size, shape, population density and land use patterns

Question 15

how do physical factors affect urban form?

Answer 15

-the steep topography of the land can be make it more challenging to build on and less accessible so poorer housing is often built on slopes
-an area rich in resources may encourage growth in size and population of the city
-some land types are more difficult or challenging to be built upon such as swamps or wetlands so limit urban growth
-the presence of lakes and seas limit urban growth in these areas whilst cities may grow along the river course due to more efficient access to trade

Question 16

how do human factors affect urban form?

Answer 16

-urban expansion can be planned or unplanned. in developing countries the expansion is due to unplanned growth in the periphery regions which results in the development of lower-cost, informal housing
-new developments are often constructed along transport links such as major motorways as this leads to linear growth

Question 17

explain gentrification of areas

Answer 17

-gentrification is the process of which low income groups become displaced by more affluent groups moving into the area
-during the 1960s to 1970s notting hill went through its first stages of gentrification with the abolition of rent controls as a result of the 1975 rent act which helped private landlords drive out the working class inhabitants through higher rents.
-the wealthier inhabitants regenerate the inner city areas through improvements to housing and the movement of more services and business in to the area contributes to a positive multiplier effect as the businesses gain greater custom

Question 18

explain fortress landscapes

Answer 18

fortress landscapes are developments deliberately landscaped and designed around security, protection and surveillance.
fortress landscapes implement gated communities where people live in housing estates that are surrounded by walls and security personnel. the strategies in these areas include CCTV.
-they are designed to create a safe environment however are divisive as only affluent individuals can afford to buy them

Question 19

explain town centre mixed developments

Answer 19

town centre mixed development is any urban development that blends residential, commercial, cultural and entertainment uses
Trinity Square in gateshead, Tyne and Wear is an example of a town centre mixed development subsequent to government regeneration
following economic decline as a result of competition from Newcastle Upon Tyne and the Metro Centre, the area was dominated by predominantly secondary or tertiary retail and commercial offer primarily serving low income local population. this meant it was challenging to attract higher value tenants. the town centre possessed an ageing public stock with low levels of investment in recent years. this meant numerous properties were vacant or unused.
the regeneration provided a variety of 45 retail units, student accommodation associated with social facilities for Northumbria university, a multi screen cinema and a car park with over 700 spaces.

Question 20

what is a post modern western city

Answer 20

-many cities, particularly in developed countries are moving away from clear-cut patterns of land use
-these cities have a service orientated economy as opposed to agriculture and manufacturing
-these cities have fragmentation as they posses multiple centres with different purposes rather than a single centre
-these cities possess less uniform architecture with buildings possessing a wider range of styles
-there is ethnic diversity due to an influx in population because of worldwide immigration. thisleades to greater polarization and inequality as immigration clusters develop

Question 21

explain edge cities

Answer 21

-edge cities are large urban areas which are situated on the outskirts of a city,
-predominantly developed close to major transport links. the majority of edge cities have developed since the 1950s subsequent to a rise in car ownership
- an example is silicon valley in California where hi-tech companies have founded an edge city

Question 22

assess the role of suburbanisation in Rio de Janeiro

Answer 22

-during the industrialisation of the city, taking place from 1945 to the late 1970s, Rio De Janeiro experienced years of economic prosperity and the expansion of the labour market. this encouraged the arrival of immigrants who were attracted by better prospects for the future and caused a subsequent increase in the population.
-The number of favelas evolved, constituting as the main housing option for the poor with the wealthiest inhabitants dominating the city centre. the informal housing frequently has limited sanitation and water amenities
-poverty became spatially concentrated in the periphery where the poor population increased 81.4 percent. This means the most remote regions of the city is inhabited by the poorest residents and is intensified by the limited accessibility due to the poor transport system links and topography. this limits their employment opportunities and reduces their income

Question 23

assess the role of suburbanisation in London

Answer 23

-in developed economies , expensive, larger housing is positioned in the suburbs of a city and the land use patterns mirror economic patterns, with wealthier, less deprived populations inhabiting the outskirts of the city
-in london the land value is higher in inner city areas meaning developments are densely compacted meaning there is low access the green spaces. This is where low income families are largely situated
-london is not an equally distributed city with 10 percent of residents holding 45 percent of London’s total net wealth and the bottom 10 percent holding none of london’s total net wealth
-many inner city area such as Notting hill have experience gentrification which has forced poorer residents out of the area

Question 24

what is the urban heat island effect

Answer 24

the urban heat island effect refers to a phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas
the urban heat island effect occurs due to the nature of urban surfaces as they have a lower surface albedo therefore enhance the absorption of insolation, maintaining high surface temperatures.
the urban heat island effect occurs due to a lack of vegetation in the area which means less heat energy is released through evapotranspiration.
the urban heat island effect occurs due to industrial activity which emits a dome of particulate pollution above the urban area and therefore attenuates the amount of insolation that can be reflected back

Question 25

explain rainfall in urban microclimates

Answer 25

precipitation is 5-15 percent greater in urban areas than rural areas due to higher urban temperatures encouraging the development of low pressure zones over the urban area as well as greater concentration of particulates which promote condensation of water vapor and contribute to cloud formation

Question 26

explain wind in urban micoclimates

Answer 26

-the roughness of urban structures exert a frictional drag on the air moving around them causing the wind velocities to to be up to 30 percent lower than that of rural areas
-the venturi effect refers to a violent form of gusting caused in particularly narrow gaps by air rushing to replace low pressure vortices beyond the structure.

Question 27

explain the air quality in urban microclimates

Answer 27

-particulates originate mainly from power station and vehicle exhausts with 80 percent of fine particulate in urban areas accounted to vehicle exhausts. the build up of particulate matter suspended in the air contributes to a greater risk of photochemical smogs as the particulates react with uv rays to form secondary pollutants
-this is linked to health problems such as breathing difficulties and respiratory disorders

Question 28

what policies have been installed to reduce the air pollution

Answer 28

-London has been declared an air quality management area which was integral following its 2015 record of possessing the highest levels on nitrogen dioxide in europe. As part of its policy it issues fines for vehicle idling in the square mile
-some cities have adopted congestion charges which fine vehicles entering the central area of the city to discourage individuals from using their vehicles. within the first year of operation the congestion charges in London reduced emissions by 15 percent
-introduction of cycle lanes and more pedestrianised areas in the city reduce the amount of access to vehicles. In london Boris Bikes were introduced as a bike hire scheme which successfully adopted 10 million riders per year. however it can lead to shops receiving fewer customers due to only accessing them through foot
-biofuels which are produced from plants can be directly used to replace petrol and diesel as they produce lower particulate emissions.

Question 29

describe the urban water cycle and problems

Answer 29

-urbanisation alters the permeability of the land through the construction of impermeable surfaces such as concrete and tarmac.
-when precipitation hits these surfaces the rock prevents water from permeating the ground therefore constraining the water to rapid surface run off
-the water collects on the surface and runs off into the city drainage systems to be fed into the river. this means the local river receives a greater discharge more rapidly
-the quality of the water reaching the river is impacts by it travelling through the urban areas as pollutants will be collected by the water on the impervious surfaces and washed into the water bodies, contaminating them

Question 30

what is catchment management

Answer 30

• a way of managing rivers and improving drainage systems by looking at the whole river catchment in order to minimise flooding, drought and water pollution
  -man made structures such as dams and reservoirs prevent flooding and ensure a constant water supply. despite this, they can disrupt natural systems by trapping sediment so downstream areas are starved of sediment
  -soft engineering works alongside nature including land use management which involves planting trees to decrease flood risk

Question 31

describe how swales are employed to develop SUDS

Answer 31

-Swales are shallow, broad vegetated channels employed to collect water to reduce the peak flows in rivers through increasing infiltration and decrease surface runoff
-In moor park Blackpool swales of 595 metre in total were constructive to deal with stormwater and has lead to 1.12 hectares of surface water being drained from car parking areas and new buildings
-they allow water to infiltrate into soils rather than directly flowing into sewers. the filtering of stormwater through vegetation and soil had been shown to reduce organic pollutants by more than 90 percent
-despite this, the swales are not suitable for steep areas or areas with roadside parking

Question 32

describe how green roofs are employed to develop SUDS

Answer 32

-vegetation roofs reduce flood risk through providing interception storage for the first 5 mm of rain and providing a reduction in peak run off rates as it retains 70 to 80 percent of run off in summer months
-at herne hill high in south London a project was installed which involved the greening of 22 roofs in the area which were prone to flooding. as a result residents will experience reduced flooding as well as sequestering carbon emissions which creates cleaner air quality

Question 33

describe how detention basins are employed to develop SUDS

Answer 33

-detention basins are surface storage basins that hold back surface water and allow it to infiltrate slowly into the soil thus reducing the run off volume.
-at gibside view in gateshead a detention basin has been designed for a maximum water depth of 1.0 m.
-the detention basins are simple to design, construct and maintain and can cater for a wide range of rainfall events

Question 34

describe how permeable paving is employed to develop SUDS

Answer 34

-permeable paving is when the paving is composed of material that has surface gaps that enable infiltration
-this reduce peak flows to the watercourse and reducing the risk of flooding downstream
-at fleetword crescent in Peterborough it has been designed that the site has a high surface water storage volumes that cater for storm rainfall events
-despite this there is a risk of long-term clogging and weed growth if the paving doesn’t undergo maintenance

Question 35

what are the drawbacks and benefits of landfill?

Answer 35

-landfill is the second most used waste treatment in the UK, with 50.8 million tonnes of waste disposed at landfills in 2018
-in HICs sanitary landfills are lined with plastic and have leak detection to prohibit leachate from running into nearby water sources whereas LICs have insufficient funds that mean nearby aquifers and water bodies are susceptible to eutrophication.
-in 1995, the government introduced a landfill tax on every tonne of material landfilled. this gave waste processing companies a financial incentive to look for recycling methods.

Question 36

what are the sources of waste in urban areas

Answer 36

industrial waste - waste produced from construction, factories, power production and manufacturing
commercial waste- produced from businesses such as shops or restaurants
personal waste - waste produced by humans in their homes

Question 37

how does waste differ in contrasting urban areas?

Answer 37

-developed countries are increasingly developing into consumerist societies with a predominant throw away culture
-despite developed countries typically producing 2.1 kg of waste per person in contrast to the developing countries who only produce 0.6 kg of waste person, they have better waste removal systems
-according to the world bank, in low income countries 90 percent of the waste is burnt or dumped in unregulated areas

Question 38

what are the drawbacks and benefits of incineration?

Answer 38

-incineration of waste can reduce the volume of disposed waste by up to 90 percent
-in 1992 the city of amsterdam created a waste to energy enterprise (AEB) which includes the operating of a large incinerator in Westport.
-the incinerator have the capacity of 900,000 tons of waste, producing 1 million Mwh of electricity annually, which is sufficient enough to service 320,000 households
-despite this, the combustion of plastics give rise to highly toxic pollutant emissions therefore require an energy recovery system where governments are able to regulate the emissions, resulting in the incineration process costing three times the price of landfilling per tonne